经典法律篇章翻译

篇章一Legal and Judicial Reform in China and Bank Assistance中国的法律和司法改革及银行援助Over the last decade, China has been creating a framework of laws, regulations and related institutions necessary for the transition to a market economy. Some legislation enacted earlier in the reform period are now being revised to reflect experience (e g, laws on companies, lawyers and bankruptcy) and to comply with WTO requirements.过去的十年间，中国创建立起一个向市场经济转型的十分重要的框架，该框架由法律、法规及相关机构组成。一些在改革阶段初期颁布的法律（如公司法、律师法及破产法）现在正被修订以反映经验以符合世贸组织的要求。Difficulties in implementing the new legal framework have underlined the need for institutional reforms, e g, the increased role of the court system in resolving disputes, and the conversion of the legal profession from government offices to private practitioners. Judicial reform was recognized at the 15th Party Congress in 1997. Despite certain progress, major reforms are still needed to address such daunting problems as local protectionism, weak enforcement of judgments and interference with judicial independence, and these reforms will require deeper structural reforms outside the court system. 在实施新的法律框架中遇到的困难凸显了机构改革的必要性，例如法院系统在解决争端上的作用日益增强、从政府官员到私人律师的职业转换。司法改革开始于1997年的第15届党代会。尽管取得了一定的进展，但仍需要进行大的改革以解决一些艰巨的问题，比如地方保护主义、判决难以执行以及对司法独立的干预。这些改革需要在法院系统之外进行更深层次的结构改革。The Bank has directly supported the gradual development of Chinas national economic laws and regulations and strengthening of key legal institutions through an ongoing technical assistance project, the Economic Law Reform Project (ELRP), which has supported the drafting of about 50 laws and regulations, training at 4 legal educational institutions, as well as institutional development at the National Peoples Congress, the State Council, the Ministry of Justice, and now the Supreme Court. 中国经济方面的法律法规的逐步完善以及通过经济法改革工程这一持续的技术支持对主要法律机构的强化得到了银行业的直接支持。50部法律法规的起草、在4个司法教育机构的培训以及机构（全国人大、国务院、司法部及最高人民法院）发展都得到了支持。Bank support during the CAS period would primarily focus on legislative drafting of strategically important laws and regulations, developing China Legislative Information Network Systems (CLINS) that will give the government and the public electronic access to Chinese local and national legislation and regulations, court administration and other court reforms, judicial training, and the national judicial exam (unified for lawyers, judges and prosecutors).在CAS阶段，银行的支持主要集中于具有战略意义的重要法律法规的起草、完善中国的立法信息网络系统（这将使政府和公众从网上获取地方和国家的法律法规）、法院管理及其它法院改革、司法培训以及全国司法考试（统一适用于律师、法官和检察官）。.篇章二Although there are differences in the history, development, principles and applications of different systems, when applied within a nation they may share common features. 虽然在历史、发展、原则及不同体系的运用上会有不同，但在某国内部实行时可能会有一些共性。Common law普通法This system developed from a set of traditional laws first brought together in England around the 12th Century. The name derives from the fact that it was one set of laws common to the whole kingdom, rather than different sets of laws used by individual communities or tribes. 普通法发源于约12世纪的英格兰，那时一套传统法律第一次被整合在一起。普通法的名称是基于这样一个事实，即是一套对于整个英国都很普通的法律，而不是用于不同社区或部落的不同的法律。One of the distinguishing features of common law is that it developed through usage rather than being imposed by codified legislation as with the civil code system. (Legislation means laws - sometimes also called statutes - that are made by a representative body such as a parliament. Codification is when individual laws of a similar nature are bundled together under one new, overarching law.)普通法的显著特征之一是其发展是基于使用而不是像民法典体系那样被编纂而成的条例要求强制施行。（立法是指由一个像议会这样的代表机构制定法律或法规。法律编纂是指把一些本质类似的法律汇总到一部新的、包含面更广的法律中。）Common law developed based on the outcomes of individual court cases. Each court case provided a basis for judging the next case of a similar nature. Over the centuries and many thousands of court cases, this process led to a body of laws covering most aspects of society and based on principles shared by the society in general. 普通法的发展基于诸多法庭判例的结果。每一个法庭判例都为下一次类似案件的审理提供了依据。经过几个世纪以及数千的法庭判例，这一过程形成了一套包含社会方方面面、基于社会总体共享的原则的法律。There are several core principles which guide common law, though they are not necessarily unique to it. These include: 有几个核心的原则指导着普通法，虽然这些原则并不是普通法所独有的。这些原则包括：1. The rights of the individual exist alongside those of the state;1. 个人权利与国家权力同在；2. It is adversarial;2. 对抗性；3. It has a presumption of innocence;3. 无罪推定；4. It develops case law through judgments and precedents;4. 判例法来自审判和先例；5. Case law co-exists with statute law and - in most cases - a constitution;5. 判例法与成文法同在，大多数情况下，与宪法同在。6. Crimes are punished and civil wrongs are rectified by compensation.6. 犯罪将予以惩罚，民事不法行为通过补偿解决。.篇章三Remittance (6)汇付Remittance is of three types: Mail Transfer, Telegraphic Transfer, and Demand Draft.汇付有三种类型：信汇、电汇和即期汇票By Mail Transfer, the buyer will hand over the payment of the goods to the remitting bank that will authorize its branch bank or correspondent bank in the country of the beneficiary by mail to make the payment to him. 信汇：买方（汇款人）将货款转交汇出行（付款行），汇出行授权其受益人所在地分行或往来行，以邮寄方式向收款人（受益人）付款的方式。By Telegraphic Transfer, the buyer will hand over the payment of the goods to the remitting bank which will authorize its branch bank or correspondent bank in the country of the beneficiary by telegraphic means to make the payment to him. Mail transfer is less expensive, but it costs more time, while telegraphic transfer is more expensive but it is much sooner. 电汇：买方（汇款人）将货款转交汇出行（付款行），汇出行授权其受益人所在地分行或往来行，以电汇方式（电报或电传）向收款人（受益人）付款的方式。信汇更便宜，但所花时间更长；电汇花费更高，但所需时间更短。By Demand Draft, the buyer will come to the local bank to buy a bankers bill and then deliver it to the seller or beneficiary by mail. When the seller or beneficiary has received it, he will come to the bank designated by the bankers bill for cash. Apart from bankers bill, promissory notes or checks can also be used in this way. 票汇：买方在其所在地银行买入银行汇票，以邮寄方式将汇票送达卖方或受益人，卖方或受益人收到汇票后，在汇票（载明）指定银行收取现款。除银行汇票外，本票和支票亦可同样办理。篇章四Civil code systems (3)民法体系This is the most common type of legal system in the world, either in its pure form or as a basis upon which other elements such as religious law are added. 无论是其形式还是作为包含其他内容（如宗教法律）的基础，民法体系都是世界上最普通的法律体系The civil code or civil law system is also called by other names such as Roman law, Continental law or Napoleonic law. All are systems where laws are legislated by parliament or some other form of representative government and codified (i.e. brought together). They are distinguished from common law mainly because they come from parliaments, not from court cases. Indeed, in civil code systems the courts do not usually have as much freedom to interpret laws. In the original Napoleonic courts judges were specifically banned from interpreting statute laws. 民法典或者民法体系也有一些其他的名称，如罗马法、大陆法或者拿破仑法。所有这些体系都是由议会或者其它形式的政府代表订立、编纂而成的法律。它们与普通法不同，主要是因为它们源自议会而非法庭判例。确实，在民法体系中，法庭通常不会有太多的自由去解释法律。在最初的拿破仑法庭中，明确禁止法官解释成文法。The underlying principle of civil code systems is that the laws applied to citizens are made by citizens through their political representatives. Judges are there to administer laws, not make them. 民法体系的基本原则是适用于公民的法律是由公民通过其政治代表制定的。法官的作用是审理案件而非制定法律。Laws are codified, which means laws of a similar nature are bundled together to create a rational system across the whole area. Advanced societies try to ensure that all laws have consistent principles and interact with each other in a logical way without conflict between laws. In complex societies codified laws are vast and detailed. Critics say this means they are hard to change but proponents argue they give certainty and predictability. 法律是编纂而来的，这是指把具有相似本质的法律整合在一起形成一套覆盖整个区域的合理的法律体系。比较发达的社会试图确保所有的法律具有一致的原则，彼此之间以符合逻辑的方式相互作用但无彼此冲突。在复杂的社会中，编纂而成的法律既巨大又细致。批评人士认为，这意味着难以改变这些法律；但支持者争论道这些法律能给予确定性和预测。Civil code systems are mainly inquisitorial rather than adversarial. That means courts are there to track down the truth, not to be a forum where two sides battle to demonstrate to a judge or jury who is right and who is wrong. Judges in civil code trials are usually more active in questioning witnesses, challenging evidence and even - in some cases - directing investigations. This is quite different to common law trials where the judge is supposed to be impartial. 民法体系主要是审问而非对抗听证。这是指法庭的宗旨是为了寻找到真相而非成为一个供双方在法官或陪审员面前争论孰是孰非的论坛。在民法体系的审判中，通常法官会更积极地询问证人，质疑证据，在一些案件中甚至会直接参与调查。这与普通法系中的审判是完全不同的，在普通法系的审判中，法官应该是中立的。Although the presumption of innocence is not usually stated explicitly in civil code laws, many countries have subsequently built it into their systems by adopting external or international obligations. For example, most European countries have ratified the European Convention on Human Rights which guarantees the right to a fair trial and the presumption of innocence. Thus these principles have become part of their national laws. 虽然在民法法系中通常不会明显强调无罪推定，但是很多国家已经通过采用外部或国际义务将其写入各自的法律体系。例如，大部分欧洲国家已经批准了欧洲人权公约以确保公平审判以及无罪推定的权利。因此，这些原则已经成为其国家法律的一部分。Trial by jury is less common in inquisitorial systems, especially when judges have a strong role in hunting down the truth in a case rather than arbitrating between two adversarial parties. The common law developed to give accused people the option of trial by their peers, meaning people from society in general rather than from the countrys rulers. Juries are, however, used in some civil code countries such as France, Norway, Spain and Brazil, albeit usually for a limited range of offences, mainly criminal. 在审问制度中，由陪审员审理案件并不常见，尤其是法官在查明案件真相而非调停对立双方的过程中发挥更重要的作用时。逐渐发展起来的普通法给予了被告由其“同行”对其进行审判的选择，“同行”是指来自社会的一般人而非国家的统治者。然而，在一些民法法系国家，如法国、挪威、西班牙和巴西，尽管对陪审团的使用仅限于一部分案件，但主要是刑事犯罪。篇章五The principal characteristics of the Western legal tradition (4)西方法律传统的主要特征The principal characteristics of the Western legal tradition may be summarized, in a preliminary way, as follows: 初步总结一下西方法律传统的主要特征，如下所示：1. A relatively sharp distinction is made between legal institutions (including legal processes such as legislation and adjudication (裁判) as well as the legal rules and concepts that are generated in those processes) and other types of institutions. Although law remains strongly influenced by religion, politics, morality, and custom, it is nevertheless distinguishable from them analytically. Custom, for example, in the sense of habitual patterns of behavior, is distinguished from customary law, in the sense of customary norms of behavior that are considered to be legally binding. Similarly, politics and morals may determine law, but they are not thought to be law as they are in some other cultures. In the West, though of course not only in the West, law is considered to have a character of its own, a certain relative autonomy. 法律制度与其他制度之间存在显著不同，法律制度包括法律程序，如立法、审判，以及这些程序所产生的法律规则和概念。虽然法律依旧受到宗教、政治、道德及风俗的强烈影响，但通过分析，仍可将法律与这些区分。比如，以习惯性的行为方式定义的风俗，与习惯法是不同的，习惯法是指被认为是具有法律约束力的吸光性的行为准则。同样，政治和道德或许可以决定法律，但是它们并不被认为是法律，虽然在一些文化中，政治和道德是法律。在西方国家，但不仅限于西方国家，人们认为法律具有自身的特点，一定的相对自主权。2. Connected with the sharpness of this distinction is the fact that the administration of legal institutions, in the Western legal tradition, is entrusted to a special corps of people, who engage in legal activities on a professional basis as a more or less fulltime occupation. 这种显著不同的特点引出一个事实，即在西方法律传统中，法律的执行授予了一群特殊的人，这些人职业地从事法律活动，或多或少作为一项全职工作。3. The legal professionals, whether typically called lawyers, as in England and America, or jurists, as in most other Western countries, are specially trained in a discrete（独立的）body of higher learning identified as legal learning, with its own professional literature and its own professional schools or other places of training. 无论是在英国和美国被称为律师的、还是在其他大部分西方国家被称为法学家的法律从业者，他们都在高等院校的独立机构经过了特别的训练进行法律学习，这些独立机构有其特有的专业文献和专业学院或是其他的训练场所。4. The body of legal learning in which the legal specialists are trained stands in a complex, dialectical（辩证的）relationship to the legal institutions, since on the one hand the learning describes those institutions but on the other hand the legal institutions, which would otherwise be disparate（不能相比的）and unorganized, become conceptualized and systematized, and thus transformed, by what is said about them in learned treatises（专著）and articles and in the classroom. In other words, the law includes not only legal institutions, legal commands, legal decisions, and the like, but also what legal scholars (including, on occasion, lawmakers, judges, and other officials talking or writing like legal scholars) say about those legal institutions, commands, and decisions. The law contains within itself a legal science, a metalaw（超然法）, by which it can be both analyzed and evaluated. 在独立机构进行法律训练的法学家与法律制度之间存在着一种复杂的、辩证的关系。这是因为，一方面法律学习描述了那些法律制度；另一方面，那些法律制度变得概念化、系统化，因而发生转变，这都得益于在教室里对专著和文章的学习，否则那些法律体系依旧是不相干的、无组织的。换句话说，法律不仅仅包括司法制度、司法决定等，还包括法律学者（一般包括法律制定者、法官及其他像法律学者一样从事口头或书面工作的官员）所说的司法制度、命令和决定。法律内部包含着一种法学，即超然法，通过超然法，法律可以被分析和评价。The first four characteristics of the Western legal tradition are shared by the tradition of Roman law as it developed in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire from the second century B.C. to the eighth century A.D. and later. They are not shared, however, in many contemporary nonWestern cultures, nor were they present in the legal order that prevailed among the Germanic peoples（日耳曼民族）of Western Europe prior to the eleventh century. Germanic law was embedded in political and religious life and in custom and morality as law is today in many informal communities（非正规社会团体）such as the school, the neighborhood, the factory, the village. 在公元前2世纪到公元8世纪的罗马共和国和罗马帝国期间，不断发展的罗马法也具有西方法律传统的这四个特征。然而，许多非西方文化的当代法律并不具备这四个特点，11世纪之前盛行于西欧日耳曼民族的法令也不具备这些特点。德国法律曾深深融进政治和宗教生活，以及风俗和道德，如同现在许多非正式团体（如学校，社区，工厂，村落）的规定一样。Neither in the Frankish Empire（法兰克帝国）nor in AngloSaxon England nor elsewhere in Europe at that time was a sharp distinction made between legal norms and procedures, on the one hand, and religious, moral, economic, political, or other standards and practices, on the other. There were, to be sure, laws, and occasionally collections of laws, issued by kings; but there were no professional lawyers or judges, no professional legal scholars, no law schools, no law books, no legal science. This was true also in the church: canon law was fused with theology, and except for some rather primitively organized collections of canons（教会法）and the monastic books of penalties for sins, there was nothing that could be called a literature of ecclesiastical law.（基督教教会法文献）在那个时期，无论是在法兰克帝国，还是盎格鲁撒克逊时期的英格兰，还是欧洲的其他地方，法律规范和法律程序与宗教、道德、经济、政治及其他的标准和实践之间没有显著不同。那时确实有法律，通常是国王颁发的法律的集合；但是，那时没有职业律师或法官，也没有法律学者、法学院、法律书籍以及法学。教堂方面同样如此，教会法是理论的融合，除了一些最初整理的教会法集合以及惩罚原罪的修道院的书籍之外，没有什么可以被认为是基督教教会文献。篇章六新中国成立以来特别是改革开放30多年来，在中国共产党的正确领导下，经过各方面坚持不懈的共同努力，我国立法工作取得了举世瞩目的巨大成就。1982年通过了现行宪法，此后又根据客观形势的发展需要，先后通过了4个宪法修正案。Since the founding of New China, especially since the introduction of the reform and opening up policy in 1978, under the correct leadership of the CPC and through the tireless, concerted efforts of all parties, remarkable achievements have been made in Chinas legislation. The current Constitution was adopted in 1982 and it has been revised four times to adapt to changes in the objective situation.到2010年底，我国已制定现行有效法律236件、行政法规690多件、地方性法规8600多件，并全面完成对现行法律和行政法规、地方性法规的集中清理工作。目前，涵盖社会关系各个方面的法律部门已经齐全，各法律部门中基本的、主要的法律已经制定，相应的行政法规和地方性法规比较完备，法律体系内部总体做到科学和谐统一。By the end of 2010, China had enacted and enforced 236 laws, over 690 administrative regulations and more than 8,600 local laws and regulations, which had been fully revised. Currently, the legal branches which covers very corner of social life have been completed and the basic and major laws of the branches have also been enacted, with the administrative regulations and local statutes being optimized. The legal system is both scientific and coordinated i