Organization Behavior组织行为学.doc

Organization BehaviorChapter11.Organizational behavior (OB)：A field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organization, for the purpose of applying such knowledge toward improving an organizations effectiveness2. Managers doManagement functionPlanningA process that includes defining goals, establishing strategy(策略), and developing plans to coordinate（调整）activitiesControllingMonitoring activities to ensure they are being accomplished as planned and correcting any significant deviations（背离）.OrganizingDetermining what tasks are to be done, who is to do them, how the tasks are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and where decisions are to be made.LeadingA function that includes motivating employees, directing others, selecting the most effective communication channels, and resolving conflictsManagement role: 1) interpersonal(人际角色) Figurehead(头面人物) Leader(领导者) Liaison(联络人) 2) informational(信息传递者) Monitor(监控者) Disseminator(传递者) Spokesperson(发言人) 3) Decisional(决策角色) Entrepreneur(创业者) Disturbance handler(混乱处理者) Resource allocator(资源分配者) Negotiator(谈判者)Management skills: 1) Technical skills The ability to apply specialized knowledge or expertise（专门技术）. 2) Human skills The ability to work with, understand, and motivate other people, both individually and in groups. 3) Conceptual skills The mental ability to analyze and diagnose(诊断) complex situations.3. Effective versus Successful Managerial Activities1) Traditional managementDecision making, planning, and controlling2) CommunicationExchanging routine(例行的) information and processing paperwork3) Human resource managementMotivating, disciplining, managing conflict, staffing(人员指挥), and training4) NetworkingSocializing, politicking(政治活动), and interacting(相互影响) with others4. Challenges and Opportunities for OB1) Responding to GlobalizationIncreased foreign assignmentsWorking with people from different culturesOverseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-cost labor2) Managing Workforce Diversity(差异，多样性)Embracing diversityChanging demographics（人口）Implications for managersRecognizing and responding to differences3) Improving Quality and ProductivityQuality management (QM)Process reengineering4) Responding to the Labor ShortageChanging work force demographicsFewer skilled laborersEarly retirements and older workers5) Improving Customer ServiceIncreased expectation of service qualityCustomer-responsive cultures6) Improving People Skills7) Empowering(授权) People8) Stimulating(刺激) Innovation(改革) and Change9) Coping with “Temporariness(临时性)”10) Working in Networked Organizations11) Helping Employees Balance Work/Life Conflicts12) Improving Ethical(伦理的) Behavior5. Independent and dependent variables1) Dependent variable: A response that is affected by an independent variable.ProductivityA performance measure that includes effectiveness and efficiencyEffectivenessAchievement of goalsEfficiencyThe ratio of effective output to the input required to achieve itAbsentThe failure to report to workTurnoverThe voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organizationOrganizational citizenship behaviorDiscretionary behavior that is not part of an employees formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organizationJob satisfactionA general attitude toward ones job, the difference between the amount of reward workers receive and the amount they believe they should receive2) Independent variable1) individual-level variables个体水平变量人们带着不同的特点进入组织，这些特点将影响到他们在工作中的行为。比较明显的特点包括：个体的或传记的特征（年龄、性别、婚姻状况等），人格特征，内在情绪框架，价值观与态度和基本的能力水平。自变量的每项因素传记特点biographical characteristics、能力ability、价值观values、态度attitudes、人格以及情绪personality。另外四个个体水平的变量也会影响到员工的行为：知觉perception、个体决策individual decision making、学习和动机learning and motivation。2) Group-level variables群体水平变量人们在群体中的行为远比个人单独活动的总和要复杂。如果考虑到人体在群体中的行为与其独处时的行为不一样，我们的模型就更加复杂了。第8章为理解群体行为动力学打下了基础，第9章我们把对群体的理解应用于对有效工作团队的设计。3) Organization systems level variables组织系统水平的变量当我们把正式结构加入到前面有关个体和群体的知识中时，组织行为就达到了复杂性和成熟性的最高水平。这一水平中的很多变量都对因变量如正式组织、工作流程、工作岗位的设计、组织中的人力资源政策和实践活动以及内部文化有影响。Chapter31.Attitudes1) Definition: Evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events.价值观代表了人们最基本的信念：从个体或社会的角度来着，某种具体的行为模式或存在的最终状态比与之相反的行为模式或存在状态更可取。这个定义包含着判断的成分，反映出个体关于正确和错误、好与坏、可取和不可取的看法与观念。2) ABCAffective Component:The emotional of feeling segment of an attitude.Behavioral Component:An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.Cognitive Component:The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.2. Moderating VariablesImportance of the attitudeSpecificity of the attitudeAccessibility of the attitudeSocial pressures on the individualDirect experience with the attitude3. Types of AttitudesJob Satisfaction: A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job.Job Involvement: Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to self-worth.Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization.Perceived Organizational Support (POS): Degree to which employees feel the organization cares about their well-being.Employee Engagement: An individuals involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the organization.4. How Employees Can Express DissatisfactionExit: Behavior directed toward leaving the organization.voice: Active and constructive attempts to improve conditionsLoyalty: Passively waiting for conditions to improveNeglect: Allowing conditions to worsen5. Job Satisfaction1) The effect on employee performanceSatisfaction and Productivitysatisfied workers are not necessarily more productiveWorker productivity is higher in organizations with more satisfied workers.Satisfaction and AbsenteeismSatisfied employees have fewer avoidable absencesSatisfaction and TurnoverSatisfied employees are less likely to quitOrganization take action to retain high performers and to weed out lower performers2) Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB)Satisfied employees who feel fairly treated by and are trusting of the organization are more willing to engage in behaviors that go beyond the normal expectations of their job.3) Job satisfaction and Customer satisfactionSatisfied employees increase customer satisfaction because:They are more friendly, upbeat and responsiveThey are less likely to turnover which helps build long-term customer relationshipsThey are experiencedDissatisfaction customers increase employee job dissatisfaction.Chapter41. AB PersonalityType As1) are always moving, walking, and eating rapidly2) feel impatient with the rate at which most events take place3) strive to think or do two or more things at once4) cannot cope with leisure time5) are obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how many or how much of everything they acquireType Bs1) never suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience2) feel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments3) play for fun and relaxation, rather than to exhibit their superiority at any cost4) can relax without guilt2. Personality1) Definition: The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts and interacts with others2) Personality Traits: Enduring characteristics that describe an individuals behavior3) Personality Determinants: Heredity Environment Situation3. MBTI (Myers-Briggs Type Indicator)能量获取：Extraversion(E) Introversion(I) 外倾/内倾接收信息：Sensing (S) Intuition (N)感觉/直觉处理信息：Thinking (T) Feeling (F)思考/情感生活方式：Judging (J) Perceiving (P)判断/知觉4. The Big Five Model of Personality Dimensions1) Extroversion: Sociable, gregarious, and assertive2) Agreeableness: Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting3) Conscientiousness: Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized4) Emotional Stability: Calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative)5) Openness to experience: Imaginativeness, artistic, sensitivity, and intellectualism5. Major Personality Attributes Influencing OB1) Locus of control: The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fateInternals: Individuals who believe that they control what happens to themExternals: Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance2) Machiavellianism: Degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintain emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.Conditions Favoring high MachDirect interactionminimal rules and regulationsEmotions distract for others3) Self-esteem: Individuals degress of liking or disliking themselves4) Self-monitoring: A personality trait that measures an individuals ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors5) Risk takingHigh Risk-taking ManagersMake quicker decisionsUse less information to make decisionsOperate in smaller and more entrepreneurial organizationsLow Risk-taking ManagersAre slower to make decisionsRequire more information before making decisionsExist in larger organizations with stable environments6) Type A personality6. Values1) Definition: Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence.2) Value System: A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individuals values in terms of their intensity.3) Importance of ValuesProvide understanding of the attitudes, motivation, and behaviors of individuals and culturesInfluence our perception of the world around usRepresent interpretations of “right” and “wrong”Imply that some behaviors or outcomes are preferred over others4) Types of ValuesTerminal Values: Desirable end-states of existence; the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetimeInstrumental Values: Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving ones terminal values7. Hofstedes Framework for Assessing Cultures (霍夫斯泰德评估文化的架构)五个纬度Power Distance权力距离The extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally. 一个国家的人民对于机构和组织的内权力分配不平等这一事实接纳和认可程度low distance: relatively equal distributionhigh distance: extremely unequal distributionIndividualism versus collectivism个人主义与集体主义Individualism: The degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than a member of groups. 个人主义指的是一个国家的人民喜欢以个体为单元的活动而不是成为群体成员进行活动的程度Collectivism: A tight social framework in which people expect other in groups of which they are part to look after them and protect themAchievement versus nurturing生活数量和生活质量Achievement: The extent to which societal values are characterized by assertiveness, materialism and competition. 生活数量指的是人们看重积极进取、金钱及物质的获取与拥有、竞争的程度Nurturing: The extent to which societal values emphasize relationships and concern for others 生活质量是指人们重视关系，并对他人幸福表示敏感和关心的程度Uncertainty Avoidance不确定性规避The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguoug situations and tries to avoid them.一个国家的人民喜欢结构化而不是非结构化情境的程度。在不确定性规避上得分高的国家，人们的焦虑水平更高、它表现为更明显的紧张、压力和攻击性。Long-term versus short-term orientation长期与短期取向Long-term Orientation: A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence. 生活在长期取向文化中的人们，总是想到未来，且看重节俭与持久。Short-term Orientation: A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfilling social obligations. 短期取向的人们看重的是过去与现在，强调对传统的尊重以及社会义务履行。8. The globe framework for assessing cultures1) Assertiveness2) Future Orientation3) Gender differentiation4) Uncertainty avoidance5) Power distance6) Individual/collectivism7) In-group collectivism8) Performance orientation9) Humane orientationChapter51. Perception: Definition and importance1) Definition: A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment2) Importance: What one perceives can be substantially different from objective reality, people s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not reality itself.2. Attribution Theory归因理论1) Perception of a person s action influenced by the assumptions we make about the person s internal state.2) When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused.3) Internally caused behaviors: under the personal control of the individual.4) Distinctiveness: whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situation.5) Consensus: if everyone faced with a similar setting responds in the same way. Consistency: does the person respond the same way over time.6) Fundamental attribution error: the tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors-when making judgement about others3. Shortcuts in judging others1) Make accurate perception rapidly2) Selective perception: people selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.3) Halo affect (晕轮效应): Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic.当我们以个体的某一种特征（如智力、社会活动力、外貌）为基础，从而形成对一个人的总体印象时，我们就受到晕轮效应的影响。4) Contrast effects: Evaluations of a person s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristic.5) Projection: Attributing one s own characteristics to other people. ( take homogeneity for granted)6) Stereotyping: Judging someone on the basis of one s perception of the group to which that person belongs7) 1st impression, recent4. The Optimizing D-M Model1) Definition: The decribes how individuals should behave to maximize some outcome2) Steps: Ascertain the need for decision-makingIdentify the decision criteriaAllocate weight to the criteriaDevelop, evaluate the alternativesSelect the best3) Assumption of the Optimizing Model Simple, well-structured Rationality: Choices that are consistent and value-maximizing4) Fully objective and logical5) Goal oriented (compatible), criteria set, all options are known, Preferences are clear, constant, solution can be found (final choice)6) Prediction from the model-stable over time5. Alternative D-M model1) The Satisfaction ModelComplexity, high uncertaintyA D-M model where a decision maker chooses the 1st solution that is “good enough”, that is satisfactory and sufficientBounded rationality: Individuals make decisions by constructing simplified model that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity.2) The Implicit Favorite ModelA D-M model where the decision maker implicitly selects a preferred alternative earlt in the decision process and biases the evaluation of all other choices.6. Current Issues in D-M1) Ethical criteria2) Different culture3) Escalation of commitment7. Common Biases1) Overconfidence Bias2) Anchoring Bias: A tendency to fixate on initial information, from which we then fail to adequately adjust for subsequent information.3) Confirmation Bias: The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgments.4) Availability Bias: The tendency for people to base their judgments on information that is readily available to them.5) Representative Bias: Assessing the likelihood of an occurrence by inappropriately considering the current situation as identical to ones in the past.6) Escalation of commitment: An increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information.7) Randomness error: The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events.8) Winners curse: A decision-making dictum that argues that the winning participants in an auction typically pay too much for the winning item.9) Hindsight bias: The tendency for us to believe falsely that wed have accurately predicted the outcome of an event, after that outcome is actually known.10) Intuitive decision making: An unconscious process created out of distilled experience.Chapter61. Defining Motivation: The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.Key ElementsIntensity: how hard a person triesDirection: toward beneficial goalPersistence: how long a person tries2. Individual Motivation Process1) Need: some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear attractive.2) Process: unsatisfied needtensiondrivessearchbehavior-satisfied need-reduction of tension-new unsatisfied need3. Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)1) Hierarchy of needs theory: There is a hierarchy of five needs-physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.2) Self-Actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.4. Maslows Hierarchy of Needs1) Lower-Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.2) High-Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actalization needs.4. Theory X and Theory Y (Douglas McGregor)1) Theory X: Assumes that employees dislike work, lack ambition, avoid resp