一些有用的essay和report技巧.doc

Gabriel，finc & acc偶然看到这题，发现自己刚好有收藏多年的干货，忍不住想要和大家分享。在我第一次写英文论文的时候，我的歪果仁老湿给予了莫大的帮助。他以一篇论文的形式呈现了怎样写论文。直到现在，翻出来看看还是有收获良多。这里面不仅给出了一篇正式论文的基本框架（你可以直接套进去），还包括了写论文的顺序，教你如何打草稿，如何写开头结尾，甚至reference的格式也给你讲的清清楚楚。以下论文（知乎格式没办法，见谅）：1. Executive SummaryThe executive summary provides a synopsis of the report. It should include: A statement on the purpose of the report what it sets out to achieve A brief outline of the scope of the report and/or research methodology An outline of the major issues or findings covered in the report An outline of the major conclusions and recommendations of the report.The executive summary should not include new information nor should it be used as an introduction to the report.As the executive summary is a summary of the report, it should ALWAYS be the LAST section of the report written2. Introduction or BackgroundIt may include an outline of the terms of reference or the reasons for the decision to write the report (see below).Explain the background to the issue/problem/topic (this could be the history, etc. that helps us understand the issue/problem/topic.What are the different points of view/opinions about the issue/problem/topic?What is likely to happen in the future?This report was requested by a number of students having difficulty understanding how to write a report.This report aims to give students a plan to follow when preparing their material and an example of the layout of a report.The material for this report was gathered from various books and web sites which will be referred to later. This format is not the only way to write a report.It is written especially for students undertaking Academic English. However, it can be a useful guide to any student in any subject.3. Scope of Report or Research ObjectivesOutline the purpose of your report.The scope of the report should define major issues or research objectives to be addressed by the report.If in doubt, ask you teacher. They may be able to help you find the right place to look for information.4. Research MethodologyMost reports will include: 4.1 primary sources of information surveys, questionnaires 4.2 secondary sources of information books, internetThis section needs to detail how the information for the report was obtained and any limitations. The place to start is in your own head. How much do you already know about the topic? Write everything down.Use the library. Not just the internet. There are books, magazines, newspapers, and staff to help you. Take notes and organise the information in a folder.Remember to write down all the information about any book or web site, etc. for the bibliography: author, title, date published, publisher and place published (see Appendix B of this report).Note taking skills are necessary when reading information and you must summarise much of that information.5. Detailed FindingsThe largest section of the report it will contain all the information and analysis, including tables, charts and diagrams.The body must be divided into logical sections and subsections with headings identical to those in the Table of Contents.It will include headings and sub-headings which reflect the contents of each section.Although a report starts with a synopsis do not start writing it until AFTER you finish the introduction, body and conclusion in that order.5.1 FIRST DRAFTDivide the body of the report into headings and subheadings, so each section can be written on its own. This makes the task seem easier.Use the passive voice (revise this section of English on Cue, Module 5). Use short sentences and simple, formal language. Include pictures if you want to make it more interesting e.g.” Diagram 2 shows that”Use your computers spell check and print preview where possible. Plan the pages carefully. Careless layout will lose marks. Check grammar and punctuation.When referencing a book, etc. in your writing remember quoting directly must use quotation marks e.g. “There are many reasons why people visit Australia.” (Smith 2012).Indirect quotes (paraphrasing): Smith (2012) says there are many different reasons people want to visit Australia.Save two copies: one on your computer and one on a USB. Lost work means starting again.5.2 SECOND DRAFTProducing the second draft is not hard once your first draft of the report is edited, typed and saved.6. Conclusion and RecommendationsThis is a summary of the main findings of the report, especially those that are for the reader/client.Conclusion should tell what the detailed findings mean for the reader/client in relation to the scope of the report or research objectives.The recommendations should list the action that you recommend should be taken based on these conclusions.6.1 CONCLUSIONIt is hoped this guide will benefit students in at least two ways. Firstly, to give a step by step method to report writing. Secondly, it is to be used as an example of report writing.The process of report writing is obviously a long and complex one. Each step should be completed before moving on to the next one. Do NOT put off starting to research and write just because it is difficult.Make sure the information in the report is relevant to the topic and discusses the issues mentioned in the introduction.6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS+ Take one step at a time+ Do not waste time+ Use all the resources available+ Talk to your teacher if in doubt+ Start now7 BIBLIOGRAPHYThe bibliography is an alphabetical list of references used in preparation of the reportStudents should refer to their textbook for guidelines on how to correctly reference information sources.Jordan, R.R (1990) Academic Writing Course, Collins ELT, London.Mangubhai, Francis and Pritchard, R (1996) English on Cue, USQ, Toowoomba..au/ecologicalfootprint/globalfootprint/index.aspAPPENDIXThe appendices section is for material that is relevant and is referred to in the report, but is too long or is not necessary to be included in the body of the report.Examples: QuestionnaireAppendices to be labelled: Appendix A, Appendix B etc.WRITING A BIBLIOGRAPHYTake careful note of the order in which the information appears below alphabetically! The format is different for books, magazines and internet. Most entries begin with an author but if not then the title, etc. is shown.1.0 BOOKSAuthors family name, initial or first name, (date of publication), title in italics, name of publisher, place where published.Barron, M L (2010) Business Finance, McGraw-Hill, Sydney.Kitchen, P D (Ed.) (1997) Business Law: Fundamentals, Thompson, London.Brown, M and White, P (2000) Writing Assignments, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne.2.0 JOURNALS/MAGAZINES/NEWSPAPERSAuthors family name, initial or first name, (date of publication),“title of article”, name of journal in italics, volume number, (issue number), pp. numbers.Smith, B (2002) “Can you write an essay?” ,Education Times, 64, (10), pp. 24-28.Mitchell, Ben (2000) “Students fail English test”, Xin Hua, 13 September, p. 5.3.0 Web SitesAuthors family name, first name/initial, (date of publication), title of page in italics, URL, date accessed. OrTitle of page, URL, date accessed.Quinion, M, (1996) Citing online sources. Advice on online citations formatsWorld Wide Words: Citing Online Sources (Accessed 7.9.2013)Information resource, .au/visas (Accessed 20/10/2012)The paper that you are requested to write should be a research paper, meaning that its goal is to present the reader with a somewhat new, original way of looking at a concept or idea. In addition to analyzing primary sources the novel(s), play(s), poem(s), or essay(s) that you chose as your focus a research paper provides a context for its argument by summarizing and commenting on secondary sources, which are other peoples analyses of primary sources. Hence a research paper is not just a summary of other peoples ideas. Instead, a research paper should evaluate those ideas and either propose a new argument or develop an existing one. The following steps should help you plan and then write your paper.1. STRUCTURING YOUR ARGUMENTa) Revisit your paper proposal and think about the questions and the argument that comprise your thesis (you might need to refine, reformulate or expand them slightly at this stage).b) Revisit your primary sources. Look for patternsin your observations about a text or event and take notes. As you read through your list of evidence, look for ideas that contradict each other, change, or are not fully explained. When writing about literature, a symbols meaning might change or contradict itself in a poem, or a character might change his or her attitude toward an idea.c) Skim through the text(s) again to find specific quotations and any other examples you may have missed. Consult the secondary sources that you have gathered. Focus on evidencethat relates to your topic and strikes you as particularly interesting, confusing, or astute. Think about how each piece of evidence supports or contradicts your topic.d) Take notes. It is a good idea to note each piece of evidence that may be relevant to your essay. List the source and page number, and make sure it is clear whether each piece of evidence is a direct citation), a close paraphrase, or your own analysis or interpretation.e) Define a Motive or Purpose for Writing. A good paper should be interesting to a broader audience. When you express your motive, you indicate why you are writing your paper. The motive is not the argument itself but rather the reason that your argument should be interesting to your reader. Motives may take into account what other critics have written, common perceptions of an event, or historical context.Some examples of motives:-“Many critics see the relationship between Huck and Jim as fair and harmonious, but closer examination of the novel reveals that this is not the case.”-“It has been often argued that Hamlet is a character who constantly delays action, especially any action leading to the revenge of his father. However, when one compares his behavior with Laertess, one arrives at a different conclusion. Hamlet has no choice but to delay.”2. OUTLINING YOUR ARGUMENTIf you plan the steps of your argument before you write your essay, you are less likely to get stuck or not know where to go next. An outline is like a map of your argument; it should show the sequence of your ideas and argument. The first part of your outline should include your motive and your thesis statement. You also should write down the subcategories of your argument and note the evidence that you plan to use.3. WRITING YOUR PAPERa) THE FIRST PARAGRAPH: YOUR THESIS STATEMENTThe first paragraph of the paper is the most importantand probably the most difficult to write, as it describes the focus of your argument and your reason for making it.You should start by 1) providing some relevant background information and then 2) explain your motive for writing and 3) state your thesis. Typically, you will want to make your thesis statement in the final sentences of the introductory paragraph.Example of a strong thesis paragraph:b) BODY PARAGRAPHSUse the body paragraphs of your paper to develop your argument. Typically, a short paper has about three body paragraphs between the thesis paragraph and the conclusion. However, you should use as many paragraphs as you need to express your ideas effectively. Each paragraph should develop a single, specific component of your argument. A paragraph should not explore two separate ideas unless it explicitly tells why they are related to each other.Some important points to consider when writing your body paragraphs: TOPIC SENTENCESE ach paragraph should begin with a sentence that develops your thesis statement.Topic sentences should introduce new informationthat confirms or complicates the argument that you state in the first paragraph. EVIDENCE AND ANALYSISWithin the paragraph, you should use specific evidence to supportthe idea stated in your topic sentence. Evidence may include historical events, passages from your chosen text (primary source), or arguments that other people have made about your topic (secondary sources).Analysis sentences explain why this evidence supports the argument that you are making. TRANSITIONS WITHIN PARAGRAPHSThe ideas within each body paragraph should come in a logical sequence. This sequence can explain, complicate, or develop the idea of the topic sentence.Transitional words help your reader understand how you are developing your main idea. These words indicate contrast, provide examples, explain results, or establish a sequence. Common transitional phrases include “furthermore,” “in addition,” “in contrast,” “for example,” “as a result,” “hence” and “thus.”Example of a good body paragraph: TRANSITIONS BETWEEN PARAGRAPHSJust as the ideas within the paragraph should come in a logical sequence, so should the paragraphs themselves. Each paragraph should relate explicitly to the preceding and following paragraph.c) CONCLUDING PARAGRAPHA conclusion should explain the significance of your thesis statement in a larger context. Although a conclusion should provide a sense of closure, it should not make broad generalizations that imply that you have supplied an absolute solution to the problem your paper addresses. TECHNIQUES FOR CONCLUDINGOne of the most effective ways to provide a sense of closure is to cite a relevant quotation from the text you are working with and to explain how to interpret that quotation using your argument. Another technique is to explain a concept/term that you bring up in your thesis statement. A further possibility is to end your paper by showing that your argument can be applied to a related topic this reinforces the relevance of your ideas.SYou should format your paper according to the rules of the Modern Language Association (MLA). Basic Formatting Rules Standard A4 paper Font: 12-point Times New Roman Double-spaced Paragraphs indented 0.5 inch from the left margin Block quotations indented 1 inch from the left margin Page numbers: Number the first page in the upper right-hand corner. On all subsequent pages, place your last name before the page number (Garcia 12). Put the page numbers in the upper right-hand corner of the page, 0.5 inches from the top. The heading should include your name, your instructors name, the course name, and the date. Double-space the heading. Title: You do not need a separate title page. Center the title and place it one double space below the heading. Capitalize all principal words. Do not underline or italicize. Double-space titles longer than one line.Example of heading and title: CITING QUOTATIONS Three lines of text or fewer: include in the text, surrounded by double quotation marks. “xxxx.” Three lines of text or more: indent 1 inch from the left margin of the text; omit quotation marks. Three lines of poetry or fewer: include in the text, using solidi (/) to indicate line breaks. Three lines of poetry or more: offset as you would more than three lines of text (see rules above). Include line breaks. Do not use slashes to indicate line breaks. To indicate an omission: use an ellipsis . . . (three periods in a row with spaces between them). If the omission is at the end of a sentence or more than one sentence, add a period to the ellipsis. CITING IN TEXT (IN-TEXT CITATIONS)For every quotation or reference in the text of your paper, indicate the author and page number of the referenced work in a parenthetical note immediately following the reference. The final quotation mark comes before the first parenthesis, and the sentences punctuation comes after the final parenthesis. If you do not directly quote the author, but still reference / paraphrase his or her ideas, these rules apply.Here are some basic MLA rules: Works by one author: In parentheses, after the quote, include the authors last name and the page number. If you name the author in the text of the paper, include the page number but not the authors name.Example: It has been said that “all men may be created equal, but not all men live equally well” (Howard 421).Example: Finton Howard firmly insists that “all men may be created equal, but not all men live equally well” (421). Works by two or three authors: Include each authors name in the parentheses, separated by “and.”Example: “A man who knows where the fish eat may soon eat fish himself” (Rogers and Llewellyn 15). Two or more works by the same author: Include a short version of the works title in the parenthetical note, separated from the authors name with a comma.Example: In her theory of representation, on the other hand, she is less interested in notions of beauty than in notions of “linguistic accuracy” (Martin, Language 143). Poems and verse dramas: Cite act, scene, and line numbers, separated by periods. Do not cite page numbers. Do not use Roman numerals. When poems are not divided into acts or scenes, cite only line numbers.Example: (Shakespeare, Hamlet 1.23.218219)Example: (Keats 1416) or (Keats lines 1416)5. WORKS CITEDThe Works Cited section should follow the end of your paper. The purpose of this section is to make it possible for your readers to identify and consult the sources that you use to make your argument.You should list at least two works besides your primary sources and only one of these works can be in Chinese. If you list four sources, only two can be in Chinese, and so on, meaning that there must be a balance between sources in English and sources in Chinese. BASIC RULES The Works Ci