串讲笔记.doc

一 绪论 1 Linguisitics :Linguistics is generally defined as the scientic study of language 2 Phonetics : The study of sounds which are used in linguistics communication is called phonetics.For example,vowels and consonants 3 Phonology” : The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology.For example,phone,phoneme,and allophone. 4 Morphology :The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words is called morphology.For example,boy and “ish”-boyish,teach-teacher. 5 Syntax : The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax.For esample,”John like linguistics.” 6 Semantics: The study of meaning in language is called semantics. For example,:The seal could not be found.The zoo keeper became worried.” The seal could not be found,The king became worried.” Here the word seal means different things. 7 Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics.For example, “I do” The word do means different context. 8 Sociolinguistics: The study of language with reference to society is called sociolinguistics.For example,regional dialects,social variation in language. 9Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to workings of mind is called psycholinguistics.二 音系学 1 Phonetics: The study of sounds that are used in linguistic communication is called phonetics. 2 Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. 3 Phone: Phone can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segement. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do,some dont. 4 Phoneme: Phonology is concerned with the speech sounds which distinguish meaning. The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme;it is a unit that is of distinctive value. 5 allophone: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. 6 Complementary distribution: These two allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in compkenebtary distribution. 7 Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segement which occurs in the same place in the stings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair. 8 Stress: When a certain syllable of a word is stressed, it means that the syllable is prounced with great force than the other or others. 9 tones: Tones are pitch variation, which are caused by the different rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like phoneme; therefore, the tone is a suprasegemental feature. 10 intonation: When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. Intonation plays an important role in conveying meaning in almost every language,especially in a language like English$isbest 三 形态学 1 morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammer which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. 2 inflectional morphology: Inflectional morphology studies the inflections of word-formation. 3 derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation. 4 morpheme: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 5 free morpheme: Free morpheme are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselces or in combination with other morphemes. 6 bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word. 7 root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear,definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. 8 affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. 9 prefix: Prefix occur at the beginning of a word. 10 suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech. 11 derivation: Derivation affixes are added to an existing form to creat a word.Derivation can be viewed as the adding of affixes to stem to form nes words. 12 compounding: Like derivation, compounding is another popular and important way of forming new words in English. Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to creat new words. $isbest 四 句法学 1 linguistic competence: Comsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language,and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 2 sentence : A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement question or command. 3 transformation rules: Syntactic movement is governed by transformational rules. The operation of the transformational rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. 4 D-structure : A sentence may have two levels of syntactic representation. One exists before movement take place, the other occurs after movement take place. In formal linguistic exploration, these two syntactic representation are commonly termed as D-structure. 5 Move : Just as there is a general rule for all phrase structure rules,i,e. the X-bar schema, there is a general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement. This movement rule is called Move $isbestGrammatical relations(语法关系) the structural and logical functional relations between every noun phrase and sentence. S-structure(表层结构): A level of syntactic representation after the operation of necessary syntactic movement. X-bar: a general and highly abstract schema that collapses all phrase structure rules into a single format: x”(spec) X (comp.) General grammar: a system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural language.Move :A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior of any constituent movement.Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning. Some views concerning the study of meaning: 1. The naming theory. One of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one, was the naming theory proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. The words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. 2. The conceptualist view(意念论): was holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e., between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation（解释） of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This view is suggested by Ogden and Richards. 3.Contextualism(语境论)：contextualism is based on the presumption(假定)that one can derive(推导) meaning from or reduce meaning to observable(可观测的) contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized, the situational context and the linguistic context. 4. Behaviorism(行为主义论): behaviorism refers to the attempt(企图) to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utter it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”(Bloomfied,1933). This theory somewhat close to contextualism emphasizes on the psychological response. Sense and reference Reference（所指意义）: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Sense(意义):Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. Major sense relations:1.synonymy(同义): refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. Synonymy can be divided into the following groups: Dialectal synonyms(地域性同义词)-synonyms used in different regional dialects. These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. Such as: American English and British English. Stylistic synonyms (文体同义词)- synonyms differing in style. Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality(礼节). Such as: old man ,daddy, father. synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning. collocational synonyms(搭配上的区别) semantically different synonyms(语意上的差别)。 Surprise and amaze 2.polysemy(多义)：refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning. For example: table 1 a piece of furniture 2 all the people seated at a table 3 the food that is put on a table . 3.homonymy(同音异意，同形异意)：homonymy refers to the phenomenon(现象) that words having different meanings have the same form, i.e. different words are identical (相同的)in sound or spelling , or in both.Homophones(同音异意):refer to two words are identical in sound, e.g. rain/ reign Homographs(同形异意):refer to two word are identical in spelling, e.g. tear n./tear v. 4.hyponymy(上下关系):refers to the sense relating between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. The word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Componential analysis(成分分析法): is a way propose by the structural semanticists(语义学者) to analyze word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. Predication analysis(述谓分析法): is a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication is usually considered an important common category shared by propositions,questions,commands ect. Predication is to break down the sentence into their smaller constituents: argument (logical participant) and predicate(relation element). The predicate is the major or pivotal element governing the argument. What is grammaticality? What might make a grammatically meaningful sentence semantically meaningless(无意义的)? Grammaticalitythe grammatical well-formedness of a sentence. A sentence may be well-formed grammatically, i.e. it conforms to the grammatical rules of the language, but it is not necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all.Presupposition(先设前提): is a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B. e.g. A: John watch needs repairing. B: John has a watch. If A is true, B must be true. Entailment(蕴涵):can be illustrated by the following two sentences in which sentence A entails sentence B. e.g. A : Mark married a blonde (金发碧眼的)heiress（女性继承人）. B: Mark married a blonde. A isT then B is T, B is false, A is false; A is false, B is not false.4. What makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar? (现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？)Traditional grammar is prescriptive（规定性）; it is based on high (religious, literary) written language. It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive（描述性）; its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is correct or not.5. Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic（共时性） or diachronic（历时性）? Why? (The description of language at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.)Modern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day language. Unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.6. Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writing? Why? Modern linguistics gives priority to the spoken language for the following reasons: First, speech precedes writing. The writing system is always a later invention used to record the speech. There are still some languages that only have the spoken form. Then, a larger amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. Third, speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.7. Saussure 是如何区分语言langue和言语parole的？(The distinction between langue and parole was made by the famous Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure early this century. Langue and parole are French words.)Langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community, and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. Langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events. Langue is relatively stable, it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.8. Chomsky的语言能力competence和语言使用performance各指什么？(American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950s proposed the distinction between competence and performance.)Chomsky defines competence as the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. This internalized set of rules enables the language user to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speakers knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performances may have mistakes because of social and psychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence, which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard (偶然的).9. How is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys distinction between competence and performance? And what is their difference?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out one aspect of language for serious study. They differ in that Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.7). Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word. For example: the root “geo-“combines with another root “-ology”, we get the word “geology”.8). Affix: morphemes manifesting various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, such as “-ing”, “-est”, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as “-ly”, “dis-“, “un-“.9). Inflection（屈折）: the manifestation of various grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.10). Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.11). Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.12). Stem: A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form himself.13). Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.14). Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.2. What does morphology study? Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. The aim of morphology is to find out the rules according to which words are formed. For example: “simplify”, “qualify”, “beautify” are formed by adding “-ify” to either an adjective or a noun.3. What is a morpheme? Describe with examples the various types of morphemes used in English. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”.Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “-ish” in “bookish”. / Bound morphemes can be subdivided into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear and definite meaning, such as “gene-” in the word “generate”. / Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as “-s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. / Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word such as “-less” in the word “friendless”.4. Try to find out the meaning of the following roots in En