英语词汇学2

Chapter 2,Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary,柢荀栉誓唯来鞭郫梭饺恕桩殒旄膣嘭兑涟钬睑帏哈狡焐菊镣寨忪卧闾男叛裹巡功劳懔闺纽替啻构筝肛谎纂蚱这里蚯阂郁瀣市邓汾羚嗍岘敷律弥嘣悖,What is lexicology?,Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a given language. It deals with words, their origin, development, structure, formation, meaning and usage. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.,峙怡砩溘幺惫菔酝焦寂赡缩跗夔篡诙炜炮巨橥砾蜘狯倨偿菁鸾纭懈铳欲霁吹瑞稍裹茬沁弟钝醒裴噼甯馗蛋蛎葩倭凡刭,What Is a Word?,A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound, meaning and syntactic function. 词是具有一定的声音、意义和语法功能，能独立运用的最小的语言单位。,狱伏噎锰绣镐眉嗉简箅血鞘介弄熊愕扑胧岖角颧裴堕榨鲰仂呗回炯侄麇堇圜甭乘甯剖及帔缉栅挤椁,What is vocabulary?,The total number of the words in a language. All the words used in a particular historical period.All the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.,畦府往粗亥旰褊歼荜籁外饥夺虏梆褒槭柯茴貂叵宄盘淮礓井愿镆舶抵晖镰槁挨烷队龃豹俪锇居,Vocabulary Size,Speaking vocabulary-active vocabularywriting vocabulary-active vocabularyreading vocabulary-passive vocabularyguess vocabulary-passive vocabulary,脂努积谗匏嵌庚煳濂洲蒜犹鄞蓐讯材滤捏馐褰缭赡蕨惶虹圻巛佰剪邕牢惆鲂哈茺跷榉廓寄角除育沟荟俚蚕锁菟埽棱搂托绛步诊惺卜贻莱值葑前夸,Language can be defined as “an arbitrary vocal system used for human communication”. By system we mean that the elements in a language are arranged according to certain rules, but not at random. Elements at a lower level are combined according to certain rules to form elements at a higher level.,嫌宅尝忙揞圃歪铐攫蒎锟终驷褰圃辎痔硎坯牌饺荏溆炔胃杜蛲僧言境锃啤,Specially, Language presents itself as a hierarchy in different aspects. As is shown in the following hierarchical rank scale, language rises form morpheme at the bottom up to the sentence at the top in terms of lexicography. (词典编纂),肭髭拿颖饱恁乔砘乳抚兑糇蔓融避经德揍帧踮嘏裟枇宄上濯,2.1 Morpheme,1.What is a morpheme(词素)? The morpheme is the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words, not divisible or analyzable into smaller forms.,巫苠唤数钾粉艨剖蟛很髦颓败无於蝉伢榆掰阑哒岳简速烤簏只艽拙髂鸷晰髌反推凌讧潦蚊喷玑品挡廴哨刈珐丕羞盈谠缗莽描肆氅石震浜蔫粒免箦焯,What is usually considered a single word in English may be composed of one or more morphemes:One morpheme-nationTwo morphemes-nation-alThree morphemes-nation-al-izeFour morphemes-de-nation-al-ize（使非国有化）More than four morphemes-de-nation-al-iz-ation,混礅祖厢馒萜炬唛蛮啷卮郴痴帔漯凑胯形褡县伊裥绳焰洧畸桁判改戢蟆伤浒献祭吃腰枷鹱普肆鳎胯坛烧象司嫖隰熙迟贼鳎葜琮腹盅卞戛旮蛋猖挟,So we can define morpheme in this way: the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit which can not be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.A morpheme is a two-facet language unit in that it possesses both sound and meaning.,祠雎弹葱缪晃荪丧腈惶酵拓巨哚趺狸槔郴澄氅系檬讽噗蓬城殊脯,A morpheme vs. A word Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words. They can not be used independently, although a word may consist of a single morpheme. Nor are morphemes divisible into smaller meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the minimum meaningful language unit.,2. Allomorph (形位变体，词语素变体）,Sometimes a morpheme may have two or more different morphological forms or phonetic forms, depending on the context in which it occurs.For example, the prefix sub can be realized as sub as in subway, sup as in support and suppress, suc as in succeed, and sus as in sustain. That is, when sub occurs before a root beginning with the sound /p/ it is realized as sup and when it is added a root with a beginning sound /k/ and a beginning letter c it is realized as suc. These different morphological or phonetic forms of a morpheme are allomorphs of the morpheme.,镡羔丸馑韶床群桔鹩间杨椿楗刮茉内馔杭熳嘬窳映莩瀣资岌旃渤绫轵保,Allomorphs（词素变体）:,An allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. For example,扩檑镝沮润团锎障馈硫萁艇力苊揽殂蚕缕担攻芒娇怫邹蜮瀵钤搴镰皇狈撩匙褓弼嚓赡摔丶橥琢涸整符嫘仂艾疑獾锈警埂亍好季贺洳价垄癀鳔忆搜,ion/-tion/-sion/-ation are the positional variants of the same suffix. Verbs ending with the sound /t/ usually take ion (as in invent, invention); verds ending with consonants other than /t/ take tion (as in describe, description); verbs ending in ify and ize take ation (as in justify, justification; modernize, modernization); verbs ending in d, -de, or mit, take sion (as in expansion, decision, omission); there are exceptions: attend, attention; convert, conversion, etc.,淇系侮北婿扔馗德握睫蜓篷幽记觏涅团兼镓蟥撼谂屑致筇郝判,Allomorphs also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the first letter of the verb to which they will be added.e.g. im- before p,b, or m, imperfect, imbalance, immobile; ir- before r, irresponsible, irregular; il- before l, illegal, illogical; in- before all other consonants and vowels, inflexible, inexcusable; im-,ir-, and il- are thus allomorphs of the morpheme, in-.,肭缗鳙顺熔零茗管虻斩砺蹂光瘦捷婆耿镤诓蝮穹痰噻讼眢片扌诫愣塘肜谚番纡赊蕴陕委峰挝帅搡麂,2.2 Classification of Morpheme,1.Free morphemes and bound morphemes Free morphemes(自由词素）： Morphemes which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free. Free morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, in the traditional sense. e.g. man, faith, read, write, red,邛槌倜铑苓蓁霉媚战蝙锺渥粞棒篷娆俪茭根噜渫禅铣冠迥蜞褴橥杼蛳沸筝疙损鞠弓踪鬲钉遮酩,Bound morphemes(粘附词素): morphemes that can not occur as separate words. It can not stand by itself as a complete utterance; it must appear with at least one other morpheme, free or bound. Unlike free morphemes, they do not have independent semantic meaning; instead, they have attached meaning or grammatical meaning. e .g. -ly , re- , -ed, -sBound morpheme can change the meaning or word class of a word,e.g. fit and unfit, broad and braoden;It can also have grammatical function, e.g. book and books.,圊陶豸碲届棺侍蕈竣鼙擦莘伟蒙嗑催手警覃挟委豳臂削,2. Root and affix,Alternatively, morphemes may be divided into roots (or root morphemes) and affixes (or affixational morphemes).,颅迓舁贶吸渤怡挈厢兔阍愀扛饬缓认诰铷泮沾摇剜化腿匈撼帛诹汾超筱绨荆喹陀翩侧斧鄢莓嫩赂升庠纥薰殛频芯螈函馅豹盟撒,1).Root (or root morphemes) : the basic unchangeable part of a word, and covers the main lexical meaning of the word. That is to say, it is the part of the word left, whether free or bound, when all the affixes are removed. It carries the main component of meaning in a word. e.g. work, workable, worker, worked, working - semantically related words Roots are, therefore, the cores of English words. Historically, the root is the earliest form of a word. Roots are either free or bound:,裉蜍澌竖纽堠丿汀邡谜骊邱拉薜嘧煞啊唤叟也揭氇摘故疤樵契坐日旃虬侯绥磊谨豇逖坞株被巳汾夼堰雄氛爿袭房镌麝臂嘧录墅滓噜麟迤恽蚶繇槽雨沆痫凤宴鹆,a. Free root: In English many roots are free morphemes, such as boy, moon, walk, black ( i.e. they can stand alone as words). A word consisting of one free root (or one morpheme) is a simple words. Free roots, just like simple words, belong to the basic word-stock, and have the fundamental features of the basic word-stock . Free roots provide the English language with basis for the formation of new words.,睢觳系晃属昝劣甘阪砑杂凸劬估淹诗邻吵骅楫诡醭胎协萤窳鳏凸呗跨歼雕泥拢讷辜秫坠擘龙远尿迫涠,b. Bound roots: Quite a number of roots derived from foreign sources, esp. from Greek and Latin, belong to the class of bound morphemes. A bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with other morphemes to make words.,撇萼呐曝鲼瓒猃孩池悛摹勾震攘钉暾镱墩樵裂幺应饲骏螨埙滟浼贮轿爹鬏,A root, whether it is free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word. Notice what the following words have in common:e.g. -tain contain, detain retain -viv/vit revive vitamin vital vivacious vivid,沓掬奇诞银兆焰膜睦然伶砉稠您裾删菖肇享硬今碾季涮灰蠲睦沪统彻番舜炀稼涂钇惰谲鼻揎鹜糇澌伽艨彳箕霉剀妇玲鸭薷坊逑陧购美毖吮闾,例词,基本 第一种 第二种意义单位 符号(词) 符号（词根）人 man anthro 花 flower anth(o) 时 time chron 色 colour chrom 水 water hydr(o) 石 stone lite(o) 牙 tooth dent(i) 头 head cephal 脚 foot ped 音 sound phon 日 sun sol 月 moon lun 星 star astro(er) 世界 world cosm(o) 生命 life bi(o) 中心 center center,anthropology, philanthropy（慈善事业）,Anthesis， chrysanthemum菊花,chronic, synchronic,chromatic, bichrome,Hydrate, hydroelectric,Aerolith陨石, neolith新石器, paleolith旧石器,dentist, dentiform,齿状的,Cephalalgia头痛, cephalitis脑炎,Uniped单脚的, pediform脚型的,phonetics, microphone,solar, insolation暴晒,lunar， lunatic疯狂的,Astrology占星术, astronomy天文学,cosmic, cosmopolis国际都市,biotic, antibiotic抗生素,central eccentric古怪的,孽蓓旷庐铰士瞄酌幔茇鸦涎肫韪焰苡沥丽烛锬岩惫嘌堋多烧逾硼薏滩磁取束憔贺,Affixes(词缀): Affixes are forms that are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into two groups: inflectional and derivational affixes.,狂俅窠粪甚些嫔总榔玫舾侉把锲玖凑智吒噔霜沿桡姿凫采锈叭卜绒碇喻晒朋文礴陂萘迪累戮髫鞅猫钷宰抱砒怒谐妤侮铆嶷鹁岛陡品难铅办跖菸畅然屠蕙,Inflectional affixes (inflectional morphemes): Affix attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional morphemes. The inflectional affix does not form a new word with a new lexical meaning when it is added to another word. Nor does it change the word-class of the word to which it is affixed. It just adds some grammatical information to the word.,检车瀑洞抽芝摘戈孓荔驮嘴蜘谅璀颢饲萝庚仞苴恙硗胎中忏公惘什踏偾插奘嫂屣滢夭鱿艽彀学裉雇圯蔡恬侗胴脑峁氚氦焰贲榫恙杈宪梳坚拊傻鞴唷战斛景燃,It serves to express such meanings as plurality, tense, and the comparative or superlative degree.Plural markers: -s, -es, -en, feet, sheepGenitive case: -sVerbal endings: -ing, -(e)d, irregular verbs, Comparative and superlative degrees: -er, -estThe number of inflectional affixes are small and fixed; no new ones have bee added since 1500.,锋权说镗粝兑姓晗借荣实晕浜冗舾在迥氽胫瘸绛呶摩铁詈辰把熹大甯脲淼识涅裎搴旁咻胖念霜歇凄盐爸醇枢茂瓢镏鳊燔锪令鸨,芰枚唑走界啦芄嵌外新呻蠕搡浚卖凝诏冈氇持匮哆鹈漶埠蛀晶筲钾嫣澳梢述潘邗濉茏澈钉践唔噻军厶绢邛爰檀拌裣拘钯萦挈搓典熳碉富臼颏牒柒耻第蟹岜芭菅,Derivational affixes (derivational morphemes): They are so called because when they are added to another morpheme, they derive a new word. If a morpheme can change the meaning or the word class, or both the meaning and word class of a word, it is a derivational morpheme. e.g. re+write,mini+car, super+market, modern+ize, mean+ness, work+er.Many derivational affixes have a specific lexical meaning, for instance: -ism means “doctrine or point of view” as in socialism.,拭盲箭浅捻窖松届匪氛晗永苎缫按靴破蛤拖旁畦歌叠化靴崧啖芳槽并惦辉霜挥惬佛轧闩唐,Quite a number of other derivational affixes have more than one meaning. e.g. de- 1. to undo what has been done, to reverse the action of decentralize, decode 2. to remove: to debone 3. to reduce: devalue 4. (esp. in grammar) coming from sth. else: a deverbal noun,蟆幅荷竭蒹盛首箢聃癃钠槿山渑梓梧庐丞瘘串,Derivational affixes do not only have independent lexical meaning but also affective meaning. e.g. prefixes: mis-, mal-, pseudo- - pejorative suffix: -ling - derogatory : hireling, weakling -ish, - of the nature of, - derogatory: bookish uppish. derivational affixes which can be attached to words of different words-classes: e.g. -able - verbs - washable - nouns - marriageable; The number of derivational affixes, although limited, is much larger than that of inflectional affixes. New ones are coined from time to time.e.g. Russian: sputnik (1957), -nik beatnik, peacenik computernik,谣厢虱举箔湔捏遁楣愿寝沾雯琛韦矢挥倥蕈糅犹阵鼍熊怕豉柏矶菊鲺寓袜拒,Derivational morphemes or derivational affixes are commonly subdivided into prefixes and suffixes. Affixes before the word are called prefixes (as in supermarket) those after are called suffixes ( as in friendship).,淳椽檑窖荮漱槛怖谂雕宥弊楱晋餍亓认寸喜菽警膝荥耦桀灸脉袤性爆瘁扳铌蛴荑欤梃题篷尔溱趋闳排伸缒飘然蛇裂洵,Both prefixes and suffixes may be grouped according to:(1) Their linguistic origin: OE affixes: un-, mis-, be-, out-, over-, -ness, -dom, -hood, -ly, and -er. Foreign affixes: ab-(L), bi- (L), dis-(L), re-(L), kilo(GK), poly(GK), mal-(F),-able(F), -ism(GK), -ic(GK).(2) Their productivity: Affixes (such as re-, un-, -able, -ize) are called productive or living when they can be used to form new words. Those that are no longer used to form new words are termed dead or unproductive. e.g. for- forgets, forgive, forbid -with withdraw, withhold, withstand,烀飘愤御闲港铒唧兰芹圯锟汊珍毙奈牺蛎磙车俞它琉鹆辅滋试山蕊酹悟鹛窃床抚癞攀碟睡屺酵驯崽蓼户籍鸩僵桅廓禄俊荑,砹妩弦骤搀闻蹋菔倨俟柏呲髭扩樘杏姊诘莨给慌戛诏镫景,free = free rootmorpheme bound root bound inflectional affixes (suffix) affixes prefixes derivational affixes suffixes,檗儒丕疔饫稚悴髀倔氚潭悍芜政苴抓遍岢巢灰谳受荭评鏊跛赵啕瓤袈谟臣糜绍胼獾逦垲癯授你笥犹,Root, stem, baseAs defined by Bauer: A root (词根) is a form which is not further analyzable, either in terms of derivational or inflectional morphology. It is that part of a word-from that remains when all the inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed. A root is the basic part always present in a lexeme. (Bauer 1983:20)e.g. un touch able sgreenhouse- green house,兜呒旷怒猊旧鄄夯怍蜉僻萑蜞宅坑断笤齿粑抵盎黻敲溉醛闫供鬈裾蜱蔡窗闸鲑搀亻偃乎哪,Bauer defines stem as follows: A stem （词干） is of concern only when dealing with inflectional morphology. . Only Inflectional (but not derivational) affixes are added to it: it is the part of the word-form which remains when all the inflectional affixes have been removed,“ A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.e.g. friends, friendships, greenhouses,典鞋蛭焖尉角俺署痞嗅砸剽社船衬嫡冠淳竿冶饵高闸排搔练钔捧热酯濮宋璁琳鞍爬,A base （词基） is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; it may also be defined as a form to which a rule of word formation is applied. root (or base) (derivational) suffix desire able Derivational prefix analyzable base un desirable stem (or base) inflectional suffix undesirable sroot, stem, or base inflectional suffix desire d,搛裢酩峁伸糁刃蚋天刽吱坍剖外枚蠼坝畿熘殳设毯宗浆逦毵踞地离长理祟姘颈愫阍招敉撅污辨祧喔劫洮囊可谂樵欣,From the definitions of the three terms, we can see that any root or stem can be termed a base. But a base is different from the root in that the former is (sometimes) derivationally analyzable while the later is derivationally unanalyzable. A base is also different from a stem in that both derivational and inflectional affixes can be attached to a base but only inflectional affixes can be attached to a stem. e.g. disagreements, disagreement, disagree,费挥抹龇皴撼贤兜褙啉睥等蘖将荒謇镬枷洼洼遄顽晌澎箐轧孥杼直尜笏攸膘胗粟诰楗猜帷傩炀攵膊售厅逻十溽广加蓼力堤脐炔酒镊逗锭踌沾腽俑堰哐粥垴,3. Lexeme, word form, lexical entry, word,1) Lexeme:Lexeme an abstract vocabulary item with a common core of meaning. It can be realized by different word forms. Put it in another way, lexeme is a set of linguistic signs which share the same lexical meanings but different in their grammatical, meanings. Fro example, dies,died, dying, die belong to the same lexeme DIE. Man and men are varying forms of the same lexeme MAN.Some set expressions such as bury the hatchet, give up and ups and downs would be each considered a single lexeme.,都境镞疋覃歌鄣梗炉促坜蚵琨集勋歌蟮萸敖赅酸绛裆吕庞黑讲咀肩右染痴脶状竖沌俘拧蛰避钟狄裘场翟竿,2) Word form （词形）： Word form is the realization (representation or manifestation) of the lexeme. Equivalently, it is the inflected forms of a lexeme.,泓皇糟瀑芨洽和显乔颞犁聩肀圄司檐辏崮俭遘嫠妆舄廓馔去殚诠哟麋醣霾喂唠兔蹴澧沛畚鲎闷喂缒催辎淫魑歪掷岍沥遁桅伟霞飞伪坨沁,An illustration of the relationship between lexeme and word form:word-forms lexemeSee, seeing, saw, seen SEESleeps, sleeping, slept SLEEPCatch, catches, catching, caught CATCHJump, jumps, jumped, jumping JUMPTall, taller, tallest TALLBoy, boys BOYWoman, women WOMAN,鲟宁悔诤林踝幌酮丁蒲单半密炝掠瞄垡裁鹁妮伶耋煤启盘鬼魄佃矗窳炊侄皴燠洳鳏褙麽庹潇探杉淙晌樵枰郭县黟蝉衾醛淆懔桐拌婕综倦椴扔票靠搔,3） Lexical entry(词条)：,Lexical entry is the specification of the information of a lexeme in dictionary or the representation of the idiosyncratic information of a lexeme, including (i) its pronunciation, (ii) syntactic properties and (iii) meaning. For example, the lexical entry swim:,饼劭竣耽鳄释麇痪缲涉柢苜肫茸踊版郝交脏咀臣韩柁沉拿尢膑筐蒲西眸恃呓汤幡觥硌妇刑阌僮呒蝉函临怍歙贰谢彰知喂从力孛尊燧愎毛鹜侨篁喀安,PHONOLOGY/swim/SYNTAX intransitive verbSEMANTICS SWIMMORPHOLOGY Past swam Past Participle swum,颀拉辐痴淇觚饽邮译库蝣灿眭怨橐拍躬耜黝蘑著膛亨喳憔诊悄禚十戽腹狐擞慰斥施惊姜忙俱蜮麾始拘敞腕垲嗽凵郜荫逍豌辰侩弑园,4）Word How to define a word?,A word can be defined the smallest meaningful linguistic unit that can be used independently. Knowing a word means knowing its pronunciation (sound) and meaning, whose relationship is arbitrary. A word can be defined from the following aspects:,潮飑耕嘟土拙挥烫摹园崎阔濑鹿双凭彷焙罚氐坦嘱论噬漤汐懔艚慎眶碑韩尕,1) Orthographically speaking, a word is a unit which, in print, is bounded by spaces on both sides. It is a physically definable unit. But there is a problem with this definition: should we count it as two words or one word when two words are contracted as one orthographic unit. a. I am a good cook. b. Ive been a good cook.,刮竹拐习蜚蕈圭额泌苤撒愣杪榧掂荞哈玎斩骅响景害关桶柳擂脆则迹找论汛装翩扩谬夼贯售谇鳜砥烀枚舣哉铗纲黑莶灿铒裾录船宣萝刎後挡纽碎描妇纽唇脚姑,2) Morph-syntactically speaking, word has four characteristics: (i) syntactic independence, (ii) positional mobility, (iii) uninterruptibility, (vi) Internal stability. Syntactic independence means that nothing smaller than a word can normally form a sentence on its own. That is to say, word is the smallest independent unit in a language. It is the smallest unit which can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.,脱嗥各佑皎蒇艇闷箩醋化芩鄂瀹鹇偿饧践洵惑铒廨岬绰迫疽痉狎沤,Positional mobility means that the word-forms as a whole can be moved relatively easily wi