Chapter3-4语言学

ChapterThreeMorphology 3 1MorphologyItreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwords andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed ChairmanchairmanSunflowersunflowerBoysboy sInternationalinter nation alCheckingcheck ing 1 variable invariablewordsDeskdeskshello2 grammaticalwords lexicalwords连介冠代名动形副functionwordscontentwords3 Closedclasswordsopenclasswords连介冠代名动形副 3 1 1openclass closedclassopenclass noun verb adjective adverb wecanaddnewwordstoit Auxiliaryverbs belongtoopen butinnumbertheyarelimited closedclass conjunction preposition article pronoun wecannotaddnewwordstothisclass Prepositions closed butopeninnumber inspiteof bymeansof contentwords functional grammaticalwords 3 2morpheme语素 Thesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent boundmorpheme 粘着语素 freemorphemederivationalmorpheme 派生语素 inflectionalmorpheme 屈折语素 derivationalaffix inflectionalaffix Boundmorpheme theycannotoccur unattached theymustappearwithatleastanothermorpheme Inspeaking weseldomuseboundmorphemealone Freemorpheme canoccuralone i e Theycanconstitutewordsbythemselves Inflectionalmorpheme inflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionofinflectionalaffixes inflectionalmorpheme suchasnumber personandcase whichdonotchangegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached andnonewwordwouldbecreated Derivationalmorpheme whentheyareconjoinedtoothermorphemesanewwordisderived orformed 3 3Affix Stem Root Affix thecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme rootorstem prefix suffix infix Stem anymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded Root thebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity internationalism 3 3morphologicalrulesofwordformation ProductivemorphologicalrulesCompoundedwordsandnoncompoundedwords That sallforchapterthree Pleasereadbyyourselftopage65 Chapter4Syntax 4 1whatissyntax Abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences Inthischapter wearegoingtointroducesomethingaboutthemostcommoncategoriesofwords andsomerulesthatgoverntheorganizationofthesecategoriesintolargerstructuralunits 4 2Categories Category agroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence anounphraseoraverb 4 2 1word levelcategories4 2 2phrasecategoriesandtheirstructure 4 2 1word levelcategories Thebookpresentstwocategories 1 majorlexicalcategoryNoun N Verb V Adjective A Preposition P 2 minorlexicalcategoryDeterminer Det限定词 Degreeword Deg Qualifier Qual修饰词 Auxiliary Aux Conjunction Con ThreeCriteria Thesethreecriteriaishelpfulinidentifyingthesyntacticcategoriesofwords1 meaningNoun wordsthatdenotehumanbeingsandobjects Jack MaryVS book pen Verb designateactions sensations states kill cutVS smell taste hearVS live love hate 2 inflection affixes plural s pasttense ed progressive ing comparative er superlative est 3 distribution whattypeofelementscanco occurwithacertainword ex nounsanddeterminers aboy verbsandauxiliary shouldcome adjectivesanddegreewords verygood 4 2 2phrasecategoriesandtheirstructure Phrase syntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrases Thecategoryofonephraseisdeterminedbytheword scategoryaroundwhichthephraseisbuilt Anounword anounphrase averb averbphrase Thephraselevelemergesfromthewordlevel Mostcommoncategories NP nounphrase VP verbphrase AP adjectivephrase PP prepositionalphrase phraselevelwordleveltheprettygirlNPNoftendreamVPVverykindAPAmainlyaboutPPP Structureofmulti wordphrase Head 中心成分 specifier 标志成分 complement 补充成分 head thewordaroundwhichthephraseisformed specifier thewordontheleftsideoftheheadscomplement thewordontherightsideoftheheads 4 3PhraseStructureRule Phrasestructurerule thespecialtypeofgrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphrase means consistsof or branchesinto NP Det N PP VP Qual V NP AP Deg A PP PP Deg P NP Mean AnNPcanconsistofadeterminer anNhead andaPPcomplementAVP 4 3 1XPrule Toreplacethehead N V A P withX XP NP VP AP PP XPSpecifierX thehead ComplementXPrule Specifier X Complement 4 3 2x Theory Thereisanintermediatelevel whichareformedbytheheadandcomplementbetweenwordlevelandphraselevel itisrepresentedbythesymbolofx Xbarrule XPx SpecifierXComplement ToreplacetheXPrulebyanothertwo phrasestructurerules A XP Specifier x B x X complement 4 3 3coordinationrule Coordinatestructure somestructuresareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand orFourimportantproperties a nolimitonthenumberb atanylevelc ofthesametype 已存在的 d identicaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined 欲添加的 coordinationrule XX ConXXstandsfor acategoryatanystructurelevel eitheranXoranXP Asterisk standsfor morecategoriescanoccurtotheleftoftheCon 4 4phraseelements 1Specifiers 标志成分 L 2Complements 补充成分 R 3Modifiers 修饰成分 L R 4 4 1Specifiers Specifiers markaphraseboundary InEnglish specifiersoccurattheleftboundaryoftheirrespectivephrases Theyareattachedtothetoplevelofphrasestructure totheleftofthehead Thesyntacticcategoryofthespecifierdiffersdependingonthecategoryofthehead DeterminersspecifierofNsQualifiers VsDegreewords As Ps 4 4 2Complements Complementsarethemselvesphrasesandprovideinformationaboutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead Subcategorization 次范畴化 theinformationaboutaword scomplementisincludedintheheadandtermed Acertainlexicalitemsrequireacertaintypeofcomplement astoryaboutasentimentalgirl XPRule revised firsttime XP Specifier X Complement Note Cisunlimitedtotherightofthehead Asentence likeconstructionservesasaCYourealizethatyouareatrueman Theconjunction Complementizers Cs 补语化成分 Thesentenceintroducedbytheconjunction Complementclause 补语从句 Itservesas Complementphrase CP 补语短语 Inwhich matrixclause 主句 ReferencePage50 4 4 3Modifiers Theyspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads ModifiersHeadAdjectivephrases AP NsAdverborprepositionalphrase AdvPPP VsPositionsofModifiersinEnglish APAdvPHeadAdvPPP TheexpandedXPrule XP Spec Mod X Complement Mod Thisruleallowsamodifiertooccureitherbeforetheheadorafterit 4 5Sentences theSrule theSrulePreviously SNPVP Nowadays theheadsofsentences Inflection Infl abstract Itcanindicatethetenseandagreement Itcanberealizedbyatenselabeloranauxiliary Head Infl 4 6Transformation 转换 4 6 1auxiliarymovement4 6 2Doinsertion4 6 3deepstructureandsurfacestructure4 6 4Whmovement4 6 5Move andconstraintsontransformation 4 6 1auxiliarymovement Auxiliaryistheheadofasentence 1 InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP Ex Willthetrainarrive Yes Noquestion TwoSteps normalordertotheinvertedordera normally auxiliaryoccupiesthepositionofInflb invert moveauxiliarytotheleftofthesubject specifier Think WhereisaC Complementizer inaCP ComplementPhrase Andhere inthenormalorder whereistheauxiliary So Infl hereismovedtotheCposition And inthisway Yes Noquestionisformed toform Yes Noquestion Inversionrule 2 Inversion revised MoveInfltoC complementizer Noted Complementizerandinvertedauxiliariesareexclusive cannotappearatthesametimeattheCposition Theteacherwonders CPif shouldhisstudent stay Inalargersentence ormatrix inversioninCPsisnotapplicable Trace markedbye empty itrecordsthefactthatthemovedelementcomesfromt