西方思想经典

Renaissance ThewordRenaissancemeans rebirth TheideaofrebirthoriginatedinthebeliefthatEuropeanshadrediscoveredthesuperiorityofGreekandRomancultureaftermanycenturiesofwhattheyconsideredintellectualandculturaldecline TheRenaissancewasaculturalmovementthatspannedtheperiodroughlyfromthe14thtothe17thcentury beginninginItalyintheLateMiddleAgesandlaterspreadingtotherestofEurope HistoriansoftenarguethisintellectualtransformationwasabridgebetweentheMiddleAgesandtheModernera Asaculturalmovement itencompassedinnovativefloweringofLatinandvernacularliteratures beginningwiththe14th centuryresurgenceoflearningbasedonclassicalsources Humanistsubjectsconsistedofthemainbodyofeducation thepraiseofhuman humannature andhumanlifeturnedintothekeynoteofliterature Inpolitics feudalismisreplacedbycentralizedpower nationsofmodernconceptwasformed Ineconomicfield thisperiodwitnessedthegradualestablishmentofcapitalism andthefastdevelopmentofbusinessandindustry Inreligiousarea theunificationoftheCatholicchurchwasbroken theabsolutepowerofreligionnolongerexists priestslostcontroloverpeople smind andevenincountriesofCatholicismbelievers secularpoweroverweighedthechurch Inthedomainofideology theologygavewaytoscience scholasticismwaschallengedbyhumanism Insocialsphere thenewly emergingtownspeopleandbourgeoisbecamerisingclass whichledtoelevationofpeople ssocialstatusthroughindividualstruggleandsuccess Itisperhapsbestknownforitsartisticdevelopments Thoughavailabilityofpaperandtheinventionofmetalmovabletypespedthedisseminationofideasfromthelater15thcentury thechangesoftheRenaissancewerenotuniformlyexperiencedacrossEurope Contents RenaissanceIdeasBirthPlaceHumanistsandArtistsinItalianRenaissanceRenaissanceinOtherEuropeanCountriesGeographicDiscovery RenaissanceIdeas HumanismIndividualismSecularism Humanism Humanismisagroupofrationalthoughtswhichfocusesonhumanandhumannature includingthevalue dignityandtalentsofhumanbeings individuallyandcollectively andgenerallyprefersindividualthoughtandevidence rationalism empiricism overestablisheddoctrineorfaith Thepurposeofhumanismistoliberatehumanbeingsfromthebondageofreligionthroughtheadvocationofequalityamonghuman theaffirmationofthislife andtheassertionofpeople srighttopersurepropertyandhappiness Undertheinfluenceofhumanism scholasticeducationgavewaytoclassics rhetoric grammar poetry history Latin Greek Individualism Itisthebasicideaandimportantcomponentofhumanism itisreplacementofGodstandardbyhumanstandard DuringtheRenaissance asapoliticalandsocialphilosophy itstresseednotselfishnessbutindividualfreedomandwill personnalityanduniqueness whichactuallyestablishasetofmoralideasaccomdatingtocaptilism Focusonindividualthought Renaissancehumanistsbelievedthatpeopleshouldbethemselvesandnotthesameaseverybodyelse Thisnotonlyshowshowhumanistswantedpeopletofollowtheirdreams butalsostrengthenspeople sinnerconfidenceandenterprisingspirit Italsopavesthewayforindividualequality ThoughindividualismintheRenaissanceputemphasisonindividual itdoesn tmeandiscardofsocialobligationandothers interest Instead itcallsforindividual sserviceandcontributiontosociety thuslivingapositiveandhonestlife Secularism Thesecondkeycharacterofhumanismisclosecorrelationwithrealiticlifeandtheproposalofsecularism SecularismorSecularHumanismisawayoflifeandthoughtthatispursuedwithoutreferencetoGodorreligion Secular cametomean belongingtothisage worldly Ingeneralterms secularisminvolvesanaffirmationofthis worldlyrealities alongwithadenialorexclusionoftranscendent other worldlyrealities Itisaworldviewandlifestyleorientedtotheprofaneratherthanthesacred thenaturalratherthanthesupernatural Secularismisanonreligiousapproachtoindividualandsociallife Itlaysstressonabundanceandgoodlinessofreallife Itleadpeopletoreevaluatethevalueofpossession Affectedbythisidea theRenaissancecultureismoresecular orientedthanthatinmiddleages BirthPlaceofRenaissance Societyandcitieschangedinthe1300s Specializationinagricultureincreased resultinginmoretrade Urbanareasbecamecentersofcommerce particularlyinItaly Italydidnotexistasapoliticalentityintheearlymodernperiod Instead itwasdividedintosmallercitystatesandterritories theKingdomofNaplescontrolledthesouth theRepublicofFlorenceandthePapalStatesatthecenter theMilaneseandtheGenoesetothenorthandwestrespectively andtheVenetianstotheeast andthesecityrepublicsweredevotedtonotionsofliberty ItalyappearedtohaveexitedfromFeudalismanditssocietywasbasedonmerchantsandcommerce Therelativepoliticalfreedomtheyaffordedwasconducivetoacademicandartisticadvancement Likewise thepositionofItaliancitiesmadethemintellectualcrossroads VenicewasEurope sgatewaytotradewiththeEast whileFlorencewasacapitaloftextiles Milan westofVenice isoneoftherichestcities itcontrolstradethroughtheAlps DuringtheRenaissance moneyandartwenthandinhand ThewealthsuchbusinessbroughttoItalymeantlargepublicandprivateartisticprojectscouldbecommissionedandindividualshadmoreleisuretimeforstudy Besides presenceofantiquitywasstrongerinItalythanelsewhereinEurope HumanistsandArtistsinItalianRenaissance HumanistsArtists Humanists LeonardoBruni 1370 1444 LorenzoValla 1407 1457 GiovanniPicoDellaMirandola 1463 1494 NiccoloMachiavelli 1469 1527 LeonardoBruni 1370 1444 Bruni smostnotableworkisHistoryoftheFlorentinePeople inwhichheglorifiedtherepublicansystemofFlorenceanditsculturalachievement attributedtheprosperityofFlorencetobusinessmen politiciansandculturalartistsratherthanchurchesandtheologians Bydoingthis hebroketheMedievaltraditionoftreatinghistoryasGod swill thusthisbookhasbeencalledthefirstmodernhistorybook Bruniwasthefirsthistoriantowriteusingthethree periodviewofhistory Antiquity MiddleAges andModern whichlaidtheconceptualgroundworkforatripartitedivisionofhistory WhileitprobablywasnotBruni sintentiontosecularizehistory thethreeperiodviewofhistoryisunquestionablysecularandforthatBrunihasbeencalledthefirstmodernhistorian LorenzoValla 1407 1457 LorenzoVallawasanItalianhumanist rhetorician educator andmostimportantlinguist HeisbestknownforhistextualanalysisthatprovedtheDonationofConstantinewasaforgery TheDonationofConstantineisaneighth centuryforgerywhichsupportedthepapacy sclaimtosupremepoliticalauthorityinwesternEurope GiovanniPicoDellaMirandola 1463 1494 GiovanniPicodellaMirandolawasanItalianRenaissancephilosopher HeisfamedforwritingthefamousOrationontheDignityofMan whichhasbeencalledthe ManifestooftheRenaissance andakeytextofRenaissancehumanism PicobelievedthatmanisGod smasterpiece auniquebeing andthatmanhadthefreechoicetoshapehisdestiny Thegreatestdignityofhumanityistheboundlesspowerofself transformation NiccoloMachiavelli 1469 1527 Niccol diBernardodeiMachiavelliwasanItalianhistorian politician diplomat philosopher humanistandwriter Hewasregardedasafounderofmodernpoliticalscience andmorespecificallypoliticalethicsforhismasterpiece ThePrince Hispoliticaltheoryisbasedonhisdimviewofhumannature Underhistheorythat theendjustifiesthemeans rulermustdowhatevernecessary evenifcruel tomaintainpoliticalpowerwithoutworryingaboutconscience Healsoadvisesrulerstoseparatemoralsfrompolitics Hisideasbecamefoundationforlaterpoliticalphilosophy RenaissanceArt Theartisareflectionofthenewhumanistspirit MedievalartandliteraturefocusedontheChurchandsalvation Renaissanceartandliteraturefocusedonindividualsandworldlymatters alongwithChristianity RenaissanceArtists RenaissanceArtistsembracedsomeoftheidealsofGreeceandRomeintheirart Theywantedtheirsubjectstoberealisticandfocusedonhumanityandemotion NewTechniquesalsoemerged Frescos Paintingdoneonwetplasterbecamepopularbecauseitgavedepthtothepaintings Sculptureemphasizedrealismandthehumanform Architecturereachednewheightsofdesign LeonardoDaVinci 1452 1519 TrueRenaissanceManHispaintingsarestillstudiedandadmiredWroteoutideas filling20 000pagesofnotesHisinterests enthusiasmboundlessHighlytalentedinallfieldsScientist inventor engineerandnaturalistDissectedCorpses MonaLisa TheLastSupper Notebooks Michelangelo StudiedanatomySculpturecommunicatesgrief love acceptance immortalityMarblestatueofDavidMostfamouspainting artworkonceilingofSistineChapelScenesfromOldTestament Genisis consideredoneofgreatestachievementsinarthistory David MichelangelocreatedhismasterpieceDavidin1504 SistineChapel AboutayearaftercreatingDavid PopeJuliusIIsummonedMichelangelotoRometoworkonhismostfamousproject theceilingoftheSistineChapel Raphael 1483 1520 ManofgreatsensitivityandkindnessDiedattheageof37MostfamousworkisTheSchoolofAthensintheVaticanPalaceAlsowellknownformanypaintingsoftheMadonna motherofJesus Pythagoras PlatoandAristotle Socrates RenaissanceinOtherEuropeanCountries RenaissanceinotherEuropeancountriesmainlyreferstoRenaissanceinnorthernEuropeannations suchasFrance Germany SpainandBritain ThefastdevelopmentofEuropeansocietypromotedideologicalandculturalcommunications SoRenaissancethoughtswerewidelyspreaded GrowingwealthinnorthernEuropesupportedRenaissanceideas DiffernetfromItalianhumanists whoturnedtoGreek Romanclassicismdirectly northernRenaissancethinkersmergedhumanistideaswithChristianity SothenorthernRenaissancewasmarkedbystrongsecularcharacters RenaissanceinFrance FrequentwarswithItaly 1515 1547 broughtbackalargenumberofartsandbooksofItalianRenaissance whichenlargedFrenchpeople shorizonandhelpeddisseminationofRenaissanceideas In1530 theestablishmentofTheFrenchAcademysignifiedthebeginningofFrenchReaissance afterthatagroupofliteraturersandscholarsgatheredtostudyGreco Romanculture CalvinismwasalsoanaspectofFrenchRenaissance butitwillbeelaboratedintheReligiousReformation LawJurist JeanBodinThefirstmanwhosystematicallyelaborateonnationalsovereignty whichbecamethefoundationofwesternpolitics Literature Novelist FrancoisRabelaisGargantuaandPantagruelisapopularnovelthatstandsatthebeginningofFrenchnovels Poets theFrenchRenaissance Pl iade agroupofradicalyoungnoblepoetsDefenseandIllustrationoftheFrenchLanguagemaintainedthatFrenchwasaworthylanguageforliteraryexpressionandadvocatedtheuseofFrench thusmadecontributiontounificationofFranceandformationofFrenchpoem Essayist MichelMontaigneEssaisHewritesabouthisdisgustwiththereligiousconflictsofhistime reflectingaspiritofskepticismandbeliefthathumansarenotabletoattaintruecertainty whichimposedeffectonlaterDescartes RenaissanceinGermany RenaissanceinGermanystartedfromthestudyofancientlinguistics Humanists firstcareconcernedwithwhetherthereligiousdoctrinesreachingthemwerecredibleornot Sotheyputemphasisonresearchoflanguageandtranslations ThusmanyGermanhumanistswerelinguists ThekeyfiguresofGermanRenaissancewereDesideriusErasmusandartistAlbrechtDurer DesideriusErasmusThePraiseofFollyAnironicialworkonignoranceofreligiouschurch GreekeditionsoftheNewTestamentInthemiddleages churchesandpriestsexplianedTheBibleanditspredictionsrandomly thisbookprovidesanauthoritativeversionforlaterpeople scorrectresearchonTheBible AlbrechtDurerThegreatestartistoftheNorthernRenaissanceTheApocalypseseries RenaissanceinSpain Undertheinfluence Spainishliteratureenteredintoitsgoldenperiod withgreatachievementsinnovelanddrama picaresquenovelwascreatedinthisperiod LitterateurMigueldeCervantesSaavedraHisinfluenceontheSpanishlanguagehasbeensogreatthatthelanguageisoftencalledthelanguageofCervantes HismostimportantworkDonQuixotebelongstopicaresquenovel DramaMostpopularculturalactivity RenaissanceinBritain NovelThomasMoreUtopiaPoetryEdmundSpenserTheFaerieQueeneQualitiesofcapitalistsEssayFrancisBaconToexpresshumanismandmaterialismthroughessays DramaThomasKydTheSpanishTragedyChristopherMarloweTheJewofMaltaBothweremembersamong universitytalents WilliamShakespeareGreatestwriterintheEnglishlanguageandtheworld spre eminentdramatistAlsocalledEngland snationalpoet ReasonsforGeographicDiscovery TheRenaissancecoincidedwiththeAgeofExplorationinEuropeanhistory TheAgeofDiscovery alongwithitscontemporaryRenaissancemovement canbeseenasabridgebetweentheMiddleAgesandtheModernera triggeringtheearlymodernperiodandtheriseofEuropeannation states Therearemanyreasonsforit 1 Economicmotivation2 TheMedievalgeographicviewandexistanceofseriesofmythrelatingtoseaislands3 Religion4 Improvementofvoyageandshipbulidingskills5 Capitalists enterprisingspirit Process Portugueseexploration1487 DiscoveryoftheCapeofGoodHope Africa provingfalsetheviewthathadexistedsincePtolemythattheIndianOceanwasland locked 1497 VascodaGamadiscoveredtheroutedirectlyfromEuropetoIndiaencouragedEuropeans resolutionandconfidence leadingtofurthereasternexpansiontoSoutheasternAsia Japan andevenChina occupiedMacaoofChinain1553