-and-interaction-(SLA).ppt

Externalfactors Inputandinteraction BasicConceptions Theinteractionistviewoflanguagelearning Languageacquisitionistheresultofaninteractionbetweenthelearner smentalabilitiesandthelinguisticenvironment Long 1990 ascitedinEllis 1994 proposedthatinteractionisnecessaryforthesecondlanguageacquisition 互动主义观点 interactionistview 即二语习得是学习者智力与语言环境共同作用的结果 学习者的加工机制决定并受到输入的影响 同样地 输入的质量也受到学习者内部机制的影响 杨党玲2004 Threeaspectsofverbalinteraction Interaction Ellis 1985 definesinteractionasthediscoursejointlyconstructedbythelearnerandhisinterlocutors 对话者 谈话者 andinputistheresultofinteraction Input Whatisavailabletothelearner Inputisthelanguageofferedtothelearnerbynativespeakersorotherlearners Albakri 110 Intake Whatisactuallyinternalizedbythelearner Production output isthelanguagespokenbythelanguagelearnersthemselves Albakri 110 Feedbackistheresponsegivenbytheconversationalpartnerstotheproductionofthelearner Albakri 110 7 1Methodsforinvestigatinginputandinteraction 7 1 1ThedatacollectedtostudylearnerlanguageThesedataconsistedoftranscriptionsoftheinteractionsinwhichthelearnerstookpart involvingbothdetailedlinguisticanalysesanddiscourseandconversationalanalysis 7 1 2ResearchmethodsExperimentalresearchseekstopredictandexplainbehavioroutofcontext ethnographicresearchseekstoprovideacontextuallyrichinterpretationofbehaviorthatleadstoagroundedunderstandingofthephenomenathatarebeingstudied Brown Gonzo2006 7 1 Experimentalandpseudo experimentalstudiesThesestudiesaredesignedtoinvestigatetheeffectofspecificvariablesoninputandinteraction Experiments Twominimalcriteria Atleasttwogroupsmustbeincluded Thesubjectsmustberandomlyassignedtooneofthegroups Twogoals Toestablishcause effectrelationships toextendtheexplanations predictionsoftheresultsofthestudytothebroaderpopulation Brown Gonzo2006 4 5 Quasi experiments Ithasbothpre andposttestsandexperimentalandcontrolgroups butnorandomassignmentofsubjects Nunan1992 41 2 IntrospectivetechniqueIntrospectionistheprocessofobservingandreflectingonone sthoughts feelings motives reasoningprocesses andmentalstateswithaviewtodeterminingthewaysinwhichtheseprocessesandstatedetermineourbehavior Particularlycontentiousistheassumptionmadebyresearchersthattheverbalreportsobtainedthroughtheintrospectioncarriedoutbytheirsubjectsaccuratelyreflectstheunderlyingcognitiveprocessesgivingrisetobehavior Nunan1992 115 1 Someearlyintrospectivemethods Freeassociationtask Subjectswererequiredtosaythefirstwordtheythoughtofinresponsetoastimulusword Nunan1992 116 Thinking aloudtechniques Arethoseinwhichsubjectscompleteataskorsolveaproblemandverbalizetheirthoughtprocessesastheydoso 2 Someintrospectivemethodsusednowadays Brown Gonzo2006 7 Diaries Diariesarefirst personaccountsoflanguagelearningorteaching Casestudy Thestudyofasingleindividualisakindofethnographyintermsofitsmethodanditsconcernforstudyingthephenomenaincontext howeverthequalitativemethodsofethnographycanbesupplementedbyquantitativedataandstatisticalanalyses Themethodofdatacollectionisnormallynaturalisticandlongitudinal Discourseanalysis Initsmostgeneralsense discourseanalysisfocusesontheanalysisofwholetexts oralorwritten ratherthandiscretesentences Thelanguagedatacanbenaturallyoccurringelicited orinvented Theproceduresusedintheanalysisoflanguageincludebothqualitativemeasuresandquantitativemeasuressuchascodingandcounting 7 2Typesofinputtolanguagelearners 7 2 1Inputtext native speakerusageAnumberofstudieshaveexaminedwhatmightbecalled inputtext bytryingtoestablishwhatnativespeakersactuallysayorwrite Anumberofresearchershavewarnedofthedangersofmakingassumptionsaboutthenatureoftheinputthatisaddressedtolanguagelearnersonthebasisofdescriptionsoftheabstractsystemofthetargetlanguage 7 2 2Inputdiscourse thedescriptionofmodifiedinput 1 DefinitionInputdiscourse thespecialkindof register thatisusedwhenspeakersaddresslanguagelearners nativespeakers talkcaretakertalkforeignertalkinterlanguagetalkteachertalk 2 Caretakertalk看护者的话 1 DefinitionWhencaretakersspeaktoyoungchildrenwhoareintheprocessofacquiringtheirL1 theytypicallyadjusttheirspeechinanumberofways Theregisterthatresultshasbeenreferredtovariouslyas baby talk motherese 妈妈的话 caretakertalk and child directedlanguage 2 CharacteristicsStyle Caretakersadjusttheirspeechformallysothattheinputthatchildrenreceiveisbothclearerandlinguisticallysimplerthenthespeechtheyaddresstootheradults Speed Slowerspeed E g Thespeechaddressedtotwoyear oldshasonlyhalfthespeedusedwithotheradults Pitch higherpitch Lexis Caretakersuseahigherratioofcontentwordstofunctorsandalsorestricttherangeofvocabularyitemsemployed Syntax alowermeanlengthofutterance MLU Topic thekindsoftopicsthatgettalkedabout A Tofollowthehere and nowprincipleB TofindthetopicsthatarefamiliartotheirchildrenC Toallowthechildtoinitiateandcontrolthedevelopmentoftopics Interactionalmodifications Tomakeplentifuluseofattention gettersCaretakersshouldbeparticularlyskilfulinthestrategiestheyusetosustainandextendaconversation 3 PurposesofcaretakertalkA toaidcommunicationB toteachlanguageC tosocializethechild 3 Foreignertalk 1 DefinitionTheforeignertalk FT isusedbynativespeakerswhencommunicatingwithnon nativespeakers 2 ThecomparisonofcaretakertalkandforeignertalkA Foreignertalkdisplaysmanyofthecharacteristicsofcaretakertalk E g nodifferencesinthedegreeofwell formednessandsyntacticcomplexity B DeclarativesaremuchmorecommonintheFT andyes noquestionsandimperativeslesscommon Reason Whereasthemainfunctionalintentofcaretakertalkisthatofdirectingthechild sbehavior thatofforeignertalkistheexchangeofinformation 3 CharacteristicsofFTA Ungrammaticalinputmodificationsa Omissionofgrammaticalfunctorssuchascopula articles conjunctions subjectpronouns andinflectionalmorphologyb ExpansionE g you isinsertedbeforeanimperativeverbc replacement rearrangementE g Nowantplay B Grammaticalinputmodificationsa SimplificationTosimplifythelanguageformstheyuse b Regularizationc ElaborationTolengthensentencesinanattempttomakethemeaningclear E g paraphrases synonym addinginformation b andc Tosimplifythelearners taskofprocessingtheinputandcanresultintheuselanguagethatisnotalwayssimpleinitself SimplificationForexample well er the747 sabigjet Ander er it saBoeing anAmericanplace Er there sover500seatswither someontopander somedownbelow RegularizationThe747 itisabigjet ItismadebyBoeingwhichisanAmericancompany Theseats theyareontwolevels Thereisatoplevelandabottomlevel ElaborationTheBoeing747orjumbo asitiscalled isaverylargejet manufacturedormadebyanAmericancompany afirminSeattleUSA Ithasthecapacityorspacetosetalargenumberofpassengers over500people Theseatsareontwodecksorlevels someupontopandsomedownbelow Discoursemanagement amountandtypeofinformationconveyed useofquestions here and thereorientation comprehensionchecks self repetitionInteractionalmodificationsRepairofcommunicationbreakdown negotiationofmeaningDiscourse relinguishingtopicrepairRepairoflearnererrors avoidanceofothercorrection on recordandoff recordcorrectionTypesofinteractionalmodificationsinforeignertalk Ageneralpreferenceforself correctionoverother correctionOn recordfeedback correction occurswhenthenativespeakerrespondstothesourceofalearner slanguageproblemsdirectlyandunambiguously bymeansofastatementwithdeclarativeintonation Off recordfeedback correction isambiguousandcanhavemorethanoneinterpretation itcanconsistofaquestionintheformofaconfirmationcheckorastatement 4 ThefunctionsofFTA topromotecommunicationGassandVaronis 1994 havefoundthatnativespeakermodificationsaremorefrequentintwo waycommunicationbecauseconversationprovidesthenativespeakerwithfeedbackfromthelearnerandthusenableshimtoestimatetheamountofadjustmentrequired Albakri 110 B tosignal implicitlyorexplicitly speakers attitudestowardstheirinterlocutors C toteachthetargetlanguageimplicitlyHatch 1983 suggeststhatforeignertalkhasthesamebasicfunctionsasmotheresewherebyitpromotescommunication establishesanaffectivebondbetweennativespeakerandlearnerandservesasanimplicitmodeofteaching Albakri 110 3 Interlanguagetalk 1 DefinitionInterlanguagetalk ILT consistsofthelanguagethatlearnersreceiveasinputwhenaddressedbyotherlearners 2 TwoissuesA ThefirstconcernstheextenttowhichILTprovideslearnerswithadequateaccesstothegrammaticalpropertiesofthetargetlanguage ILThasbeenfoundtobelessgrammaticaloverallthanFTorteachertalk Learnersalsofailtousepolitenessstrategiestothesameextentsasnativespeakers Ingeneral theydidnotgeneratethekindofsocioculturalinputneededforlanguagelearning B ThesecondmajorissueconcernswhetherILTprovideslearnerswiththesameopportunitiesfornegotiatingmeaningasoccurFT Overall meaningnegotiationisveryextensiveinILT moresothanincomparableFTdiscourse Thequalityofinterlanguagetalkisofconsiderableimportancegiventhecurrentemphasisplacedonsmallgroupworkincommunicativelanguageteaching 4 Teachertalk 1 FeaturesofteachertalkA AmountoftalkIngeneral theresearchconfirmsthefindingforL1classroom namely thattheteachertakesupabouttwo thirdsofthetotaltime B FunctionaldistributionThereisconsiderableevidenceofvariabilityamongteachersandprograms butthegeneralpictureisagainoneofteacherdominanceinthatteachersarelikelytoexplain questionandcommandandlearnerstorespond C RateofspeechTeachers likenativespeakersingeneral slowdowntheirrateofspeechwhentalkingtolearnersincomparisontoothernativespeakersandalsodosotoagreaterextentwithlessproficientlearners However thereisconsiderablevariabilityamongteachers D PausesTeachersarelikelytomakeuseoflongerpauseswhentalkingtolearnersthantoothernativespeakers E Phonology intonation articulation stressTherehavebeenfewstudieswhichhaveattemptedtoquantifytheseaspectsofteachertalk butteachersappeartospeakmoreloudlyandtomaketheirspeechmoredistinctwhenaddressingL2learners F ModificationinvocabularySeveralstudiesprovideevidenceofalowertype tokenratioandteachersalsovaryinaccordancewiththelearners proficiencylevel G ModificationinsyntaxThereisatrendtowardsshorterutteranceswithlessproficientlearners butsomestudieswhichusewordsperutteranceasameasurereportnomodifications Thedegreeofsubordinationtendstobelower butagainresultshavebeenmixed Teachersusefewermarkedstructures Moredeclarativesandstatementsthanquestionsareusedincomparisontonaturaldiscourse Ungrammaticalteachertalkisrare H ModificationindiscourseThereissomeevidencethatteachersusemoreself repetitionswithL2learners inparticularwhentheyareoflowlevelproficiency 2 Errortreatment A Fourtypesoferrortreatment a Treatmentthatresultsinlearners autonomousability tocorrectthemselvesonanitem b Treatmentthatresultintheelicitationofacorrectresponsefromalearner c Anyreactionsbytheteacherthatclearlytransform disapprovinglyrefersto ordemandsimprovement d Positiveornegativereinforcementinvolvingexpressionsofapprovalordisapproval B Whattypeoferrortreatmentisthebest a Errorshouldbeconductedinamannerthatiscompatiblewithgeneralinterlanguagedevelopment b Self repairismoreconductivetoacquisitionthanother repair asitislesslikelytoresultinanegativeaffectiveresponse 3 Teachers questions A Typesofquestions a EchoicComprehensioncheckse g Allright Doeseveryoneunderstand polite Clarificationrequestse g Whatdoyoumean Idon tunderstand What Confirmationcheckse g S CarefullyT Carefully Didyousay he b Epistemic 认知的 Referentiale g Whydidn tyoudoyourhomework Displaye g What stheoppositeof up inEnglish ExpressiveIt sinterestingthedifferentpronunciationswehavenow butisn tit Rhetoricale g WhydidIdothat Because B Studyfocusofteachers questions a Thefrequencyofthedifferenttypesofquestions b Waittime c Thenatureofthelearners outputwhenansweringquestions d Theeffectofthelearners levelofproficiencyonquestioning e Thepossibilityoftrainingteacherstoaskmore communicative questions f Thevariationevidentinteachers questioningstrategies 4 Differentattitudestowardstheproportionofteacher talk A Tryingtominimizeteacher talkE g audiolingualmethod communicativemethodB Nottominimizeteacher talkE g conventionalacademicteachinglistening basedteaching 7 3InputandinteractioninSLA 7 3 1InputfrequencyandSLAThefrequencyhypothesisstatesthattheorderofSLAisdeterminedbythefrequencywithwhichdifferentlinguisticitemsoccursintheinput Hatch和Wagner2Gough 1976 首先提出了频率假设 frequencyhypothesis 他们认为 学习者习得语言的先后顺序取决于该语言成分在输入中出现频率的高低 但实证研究结果表明 二者之间关系是复杂的 杨党玲 李民权2004 7 3 2InteractionHypothesis WhenL2learnersfacecommunicativeproblemsandtheyhavetheopportunitytonegotiatesolutionstothem theyareabletoacquirenewlanguage ThisclaimhasbeenreferredtoastheInteractionHypothesis Ellis 1990 1 Therelationshipbetweeninteractiveandnon interactiveinputandcomprehension Intermsofnon interactiveinput Thereismixedevidenceregardingthevalueoflinguisticallysimplifiedinputforpromotingcomprehension Whereasspeechratedoeshaveacleareffect grammaticalmodificationsdonotalwaysresultinimprovedcomprehension Elaborativemodificationswillonlybenefitcomprehensioniftheleveloflinguisticdifficultyoftheinputdoesnotexceedacertainthreshold Intermsofinteractiveinput Thepresenceofinteractionalmodificationisofnoguaranteethatcomprehensionhastakenplace Learnersmaychoosetofeigncomprehensionafternegotiationratherthancontinuetodemonstratetotheirinterlocutorsthattheyhavenotunderstood whilecomprehensionappearstobenefitfromopportunitiesfornegotiationofmeaning 2 TherelationshipbetweencomprehensibleinputandacquisitionComprehensibleinputcontributesacquisition 3 Therelationshipbetweeninput interactionalmodificationsandacquisition 1 Providinglearnerswithcontextualcuesthathelpthemtounderstandthemeaningsofwordsresultsnotonlyinbettercomprehensionbutalsoinbetterretentionofthewords 2 Providinglearnerswithopportunitiestomodifyinputinteractionallyimprovescomprehensionandenablesthemtolearnmorenewwordsthansimplyprovidingthelearnerswithunmodifiedorpremodifiedinput 7 3 3Theinputhypothesis InputHypothesis Learnersprogressalongthenaturalorderbyunderstandinginputthatcontainsstructuresalittlebitbeyondtheircurrentlevelofcompetence Krashen 1981 Accordingtothishypothesis thelearnerimprovesandprogressesalongthe naturalorder whenhe shereceivessecondlanguage input thatisonestepbeyondhis hercurrentstageoflinguisticcompetence Forexample ifalearnerisatastage i thenacquisitiontakesplacewhenhe sheisexposedto ComprehensibleInput thatbelongstolevel i 1 7 3 4NoticingHypothesis有意注意假设 1 TheideasofNoticingHypothesis Truscott1998 10 NoticingHypothesis Attentionisessentialtolearning therecouldbenolearningwithoutattention Schmidt 1990 Itclaimsthatconsciousawareness noticing ofgrammarplaysanimportantroleintheprocess Inthestrongformofthehypothesis favoredbySchmidt 1990 1993a 1994 1995b noticingisanecessaryconditionforlearning Otherresearchersmightpreferaweakerversion thatnoticingishelpfulbutmightnotbenecessary Intheweakversion learnersneedonlybeawareoftheinputinaglobalsense theydonothavetonoticeanydetailsofitsform 2 Relatedresearches 1 Researchonattention 2 Noticingvsattentiontothetask 3 Consciousnessandlearningresearch 7 4Learneroutputandacquisition OutputHypothesis Learnersneedtheopportunitiesofmeaningfuluseoftheirlinguisticresourcestoachievefullgrammaticalcompetence Comprehensiveoutputcontributestoacquisitioninthatlearnersneedtobepushedintoproducingoutputthatisconcise coherent andappropriateinordertodevelopfullgrammaticalcompetence Thereisevidencetoshowthatindirectfeedbackintheformofclarificationrequestspusheslearnerstoimprovetheiroutput 7 5Gass sModel TheInput Interactionmodeldemonstratesthedifferentstagesthatinputgoesthroughbeforeitcanbeutilizedproductivelybythelearner Thismodel aninteractivemodelofsecondlanguageacquisition attemptstoincorporateallattributesofL2developmentandtoembracethedifferentandoftenincompatibleproposalsintheliterature Thedifferenttheoriesoflanguageacquisition ingeneral arepresentedandGass sapproachistoshowhowtheycomplement ratherthancontradict eachother Finney1997 语码输入输出整合理论 戴炜栋 徐海铭 罗杏焕2006 ApperceivedinputcharacterizestheawarenessofnewL2informationthatisnotyetpartofthelearner sL2repertoire Comprehendedinputgoesonestepbeyondrecognition Itmaybeanalyzedandhasthepotentialofbeingas