《新编简明英语语言学教程》

ACourseonLinguistics戴炜栋 新编简明英语语言学教程 网络下载 调整修改中 TheGoalsforthisCourse Togetascientificviewonlanguage Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteachingToprepareforthefutureresearchwork TheRequirementsforthiscourse ClassattendanceClassroomdiscussionFulfillmentoftheassignmentExamination ReferenceBooks 戴炜栋 何兆熊 2002 新编简明英语语言学教程 上海外语教育出版社 胡壮麟 2001 语言学教程 北京大学出版社 刘润清 1995 西方语言学流派 外语教学与研究出版社 Fromkin V R Rodman 1998 AnIntroductiontoLanguagethesixthedition Orlando Florida Holt Ranehart Winston Inc Chapter1 Introduction 1 Whatislanguage Languagecanmean whatapersonsays e g badlanguage expressions thewayofspeakingorwriting e g Shakespeare slanguage Luxun slanguage aparticularvarietyorlevelofspeechorwriting e g languageforspecialpurpose colloquiallanguage theabstractsystemunderlyingthetotalityofthespeech writingbehaviorofacommunity e g Chineselanguage firstlanguage thecommonfeaturesofallhumanlanguages e g Hestudieslanguage atoolforhumancommunication socialfunction asetofrules rule governed Sapir sdefinition 1921 Languageisapurelyhumanandnon instinctivemethodofcommunicatingideas emotionsanddesiresbymeansofvoluntarilyproducedsymbols Hall sdefinition 1968 Languageis theinstitutionwherebyhumanscommunicateandinteractwitheachotherbymeansofhabituallyusedoral auditoryarbitrarysymbols Chomsky sdefinition 1957 FromnowonIwillconsiderlanguagetobeasetof finiteorinfinite sentences eachfiniteinlengthandconstructedoutofafinitesetofelements Languagecanbegenerallydefinedas asystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication Languageisasystem Systematic rule governed elementsinitarearrangedaccordingtocertainrules can tbecombinedatwill e g bkli Iappleeat Languageisarbitrary Arbitrary nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes e g pen byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith Languageissymbolicinnature Symbolic wordsareassociatedwithobjects actionsideasbyconvention Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet Shakespeare Languageisprimarilyvocal Vocal theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform Languageishuman specific Human specific differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess e g birdsongs beedance animalcries Thedesign definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage CharlesHockett ArbitrarinessProductivity CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmission Arbitrariness Nological motivatedorintrinsic connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings Onomatopoeicwords whichimitatenaturalsounds aresomewhatmotivated English rumble crackle bang Chinese putong shasha dingdang Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary e g type writer shoe maker air conditioner photocopy Productivity creativity Peculiartohumanlanguages usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore e g wecanunderstandsentencelike Ared eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted makinganynoveltyimpossible Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance beesdonot talk aboutthemselves thehives orwind letaloneaboutpeople animals hopesordesires Duality doublearticulation Lowerlevel sounds meaningless Higherlevel meaning largerunitsofmeaning Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning words andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences wemakedictionaryofalanguage butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage Displacement Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings whicharenotpresent realorimaginedmattersinthepast presentorfuture orinfar awayplaces AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood Inthissense thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries Culturaltransmission Languageisculturallytransmitted throughteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted Allcats gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats gibbonsandbees AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted Thatis itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning ratherthanbyinstinct Thestoryofawolfchild apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage Functionsoflanguage Phatic establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact Directive getthehearertodosomething Informative giveinformationaboutfacts Interrogative getinformationfromothers Expressive expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker Evocative createcertainfeelingsinthehearer amuse startle soothe worryorplease Performative languageisusedtodothings toperformactions Theoriginoflanguage Thedivine origintheory LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind Theinventiontheory imitative criesofnature thegruntsofmenworkingtogether Theevolutionarytheory theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment 许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学 至少不够严谨 他对语言的定义做了如下概括 语言是一种符号系统 当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候 它是表达相互反应的中介 当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候 它是认知事物的工具 当它作用于文化的时候 它是文化的载体 2 Whatislinguistics Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies Exhaustiveness adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics TheoreticallinguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics Theoreticallinguistics Phonetics speechsound description classification transcription articulatoryphonetics acousticphonetics auditoryphonetics Phonology soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology theformofwordsSyntax therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence Semantics themeaningoflanguage whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse Pragmatics Useoflinguistics Appliedlinguistics linguisticsandlanguageteachingSociolinguistics socialfactors e g class education affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylistics linguisticandliterature Someotherapplications AnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsComputationallinguistics e g machinetranslation Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics Descriptivevsprescriptive Descriptive describe analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse modernlinguistic Prescriptive laydownrulesfor correct linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage traditionalgrammar Synchronicvsdiachronic Synchronicstudy descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime modernlinguistics Diachronicstudy descriptionofalanguagethroughtime historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime Speechvswriting Speech primarymediumoflanguageWriting laterdeveloped Languevsparole F deSaussure Langue theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity Parole therealizationoflangueinactualuse Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions Competenceandperformance Chomsky Competence theidealuser sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual Traditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguistics Traditionalgrammar prescriptive written Latin basedframeworkModernlinguistics descriptive spoken notnecessarilyLatin basedframework Chapter2Phonology Languageisprimarilyvocal Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds butinspeechsounds soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication Phonetics Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription classificationandtranscription e g p bilabial stop Threebranchesofphonetics Articulatoryphonetics fromthespeakers pointofview howspeakersproducespeechsounds Auditoryphonetics fromthehearers pointofview howsoundsareperceived Acousticphonetics fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother Articulatoryphonetics Speechorgans threeimportantareas Pharyngealcavity thethroat Theoralcavity themouth Nasalcavity thenose Thediagramofspeechorgans LipsTeethTeethridge alveolar HardpalateSoftpalate velum UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavity Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet IPA ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound Broadtranscription usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose withoutdiacritics e g clear l pit Narrowtranscription usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy withdiacritics e g dark l aspirated p Somemajorarticulatoryvariables dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary Voicing voiced voicelessNasality nasal non nasalAspiration aspirated unaspirated ClassificationofEnglishspeechsounds Englishspeechsoundsaregenerallyclassifiedintotwolargecategories VowelsConsonantsNote Theessentialdifferencebetweenthesetwoclassesisthatintheproductionoftheformertheairstreammeetswithnoobstructionofanykindinthethroat thenoseorthemouth whileinthatofthelatteritissomehowobstructed Classificationofconsonants Englishconsonantsmaybeclassifiedaccordingtotwodimensions ThemannerofarticulationTheplaceofarticulation Themannerofarticulation stops plosives p b t d k g fricatives f v s z W T F V h affricates tF dV liquids l lateral r nasals m n N glides semivowels w j Theplaceofarticulation bilabial p b m w labiodental f v dental W T alveolar t d s z n l r palatal F V tF dV j velar k g N glottal h Theplaceofarticulation Bilabial Labiodental Dentalorinterdental Alveolar Palatoalveolar Palatal Velar Uvular Glottal ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonants Classificationofvowels Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories Monophthongsorpure singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowels Monophthongsorpure singlevowels Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction thevowelscanbedistinguishedas frontvowels I I e Z A B centralvowels E E Q backvowels u u C C B Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth Close I I u u Semi close e E Semi open E C Open A B C B Q Thediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliprounding rounded u u C C unrounded I I e Z A B E E Q B Accordingtothelengthofthevowels long I E u C B short I e Z A E Q B u C Diphthongs glidingvowels ei ai aU EU Ri iE ZE UE Exercises underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired Abilabialconsonant madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato alveolarconsonant sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant liebuythighthytieryeAglide onewaryolkrush Underlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired AfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasaltrainbangleaflimbAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate racksuchridgebooze Underlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired Acentralvowel madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel paidreapfooltopgoodfather Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions vd vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither Phonology Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds thatis thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages Phonetics phonology Bothareconcernedwiththesameaspectoflanguage thespeechsounds Buttheydifferintheirapproachandfocus Phoneticsisofgeneralnature itisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages itaimstoanswerquestionslike howtheyareproduced howtheydifferfromeachother whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave howtheycanbeclassified etc Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication Phone phoneme allophone Phone Aphone aphoneticunitorsegment Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning somedo somedon t e g bI t bIt spIt spIt Phoneme Aphoneme isaphonologicalunit itisaunitofdistinctivevalue anabstractunit notaparticularsound butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext e g thephoneme p canberepresenteddifferentlyin pIt tIp and spIt Allophone Allophones thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments Phonemiccontrast complementarydistributionandminimalpair Phonemiccontrast Phonemiccontrast differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast e g b and p in bIt and pIt Complementarydistribution Complementarydistribution allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution Theydonotdistinguishmeaning Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts e g dark l clear l aspirated p unaspirated p Minimalpair Minimalpair whentwodifferentformsareidentical thesame ineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings thetwosoundcombinationsaresaidtoformaminimalpair e g beat bit bet bat boot but bait bite boat Somerulesofphonology SequentialrulesAssimilationruleDeletionrule Sequentialrules Sequentialrules therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguage e g inEnglish kbiI mightpossiblyformblik klib bilk kilb Ifawordbeginswitha l ora r thenthenextsoundmustbeavowel Sequentialrules Ifthreeconsonantsshouldclustertogetheratthebeginningofaword thecombinationshouldobeythefollowingthreerules e g spring strict square splendid scream a thefirstphonememustbe s b thesecondphonememustbe p or t or k c thethirdphonememustbe l or r or w N neveroccursininitialpositioninEnglishandstandardChinese butitdoesoccurinsomedialects e g inCantonese 牛肉 我 俄语 Assimilationrule Assimilationrule assimilatesonesoundtoanotherby copying afeatureofasequentialphoneme thusmakingthetwophonessimilar e g theprefixinispronounceddifferentlywhenindifferentphoneticcontexts indiscreetalveolar In inconceivablevelar IN inputbilabial Im AssimilationinMandarin 好啊haowa海啊haiya看啊kanna唱啊changNa跳啊tiaowa Deletionrule Deletionrule ittellsuswhenasoundistobedeletedalthoughitisorthographicallyrepresented e g design paradigm thereisno g sound butthe g soundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature designation paradigmatic Suprasegmentalfeatures Suprasegmentalfeatures thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments largerthanphoneme stresstoneintonation Syllable whatissyllable AncientGreek aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant Dictionary wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts theONSET thePEAK theCODA e g mAn Thepeakistheessentialpart Itisusuallyformedbyavowel But l n and m mightalsofunctionaspeaksasin apple hidden communism Stress WordstressSentencestress Wordstress ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning e g ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword verb im5port in5crease re5bel re5cord noun 5import 5increase 5rebel 5record Wordstress Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements compound 5blackbird 5greenhouse 5hotdog nounphrase black5bird green5house hot5dog Wordstress Themeaning distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof ingformsandnouns modifier 5dining room 5readingroom 5sleepingbag doer sleeping5baby swimming5fish flying5plane Sentencestress Sentencestress therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence Generally nouns mainverbs adjectives adverbs numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed Othercategorieslikearticles personpronouns auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed Note forpragmaticreason thisruleisnotalwaysright e g wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences Heisdrivingmycar Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday Tone Tonesarepitchvariations whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords Englishisnotatonelanguage butChineseis ma妈 level ma麻 thesecondrise ma马 thethirdrise ma骂 thefourthfall Intonation Whenpitch stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused fallingtone matteroffactstatement risingtone doubtsorquestion thefall risetone impliedmessage Forinstance That snotthebookhewants Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage esp inEnglish a Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations b Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits e g Johndidn tcomebecauseofMarry Withinoneintonationunit itmeans Johncame butithadnothingtodowithMarry Withtwointonationunits itmeans MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidn tcome Exercises Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations c Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit e g Jackcameyesterdaybytrain Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations d Itsattitudinalfunctions Fallingtone matter of factstatement downrightassertion commands Risingtone politeness encouragement pleading Note thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext Chapter3Morphology Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed Openclasswordandclosedclassword Openclasswords contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords suchasnouns adjectives verbsandadverbs e g beatnik amemberoftheBeatGeneration hacker email internet