语言学ppt课件

LectureFour Morphology Morphology thewordsoflanguage morphology在传统上 它跟句法学相区分 后者研究句中词与词之间的搭配规则 形态学可分成两个领域 屈折变化的研究 即屈折变化形态学 inflectionalmorphology 构词的研究 即词汇或派生形态学 lexical derivationalmorphology 结构语言学 StructuralLinguistics 自索绪尔起 便或者把语素 morpheme 或者把词 word 看作形态学的基本单位 尤其是四 五十年代美国结构主义语言学家所使用的技术时 用作语素学 morphemics 这个术语 从这个意义上说 语素分析 只是共时语言学研究的一部分 而 形态分析 morphologicalanalysis 则是一个更具有概括性的术语 也可应用于对历史的研究 在生成语言学中 形态学和句法学同属一个层次 语法的句法规则不仅运用于短语和句子 而且也运用于词的结构 形态概念只是在形态音位规则对句法部分的输出作音位表达时才用到 Isolating InflectingandAgglutinating Threesensesof word Knowingawordmeansknowingbothitssoundanditsmeaning 1 Thesounds pronunciation andthemeaningofawordareinseparable Thiswaspointedoutbythe19thcenturySwisslinguisticFerdinanddeSaussure whodiscussedthearbitraryunionbetweenthesounds form andmeaning concept ofthelinguisticsign Inthissenseeverywordisalinguisticsign 2 Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms aunitofvocabulary alexicalitem oralexeme anabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts 3 Thedictionaryrepresentationofawordmustincludewhetheritisanoun averb anadjective anadverb apreposition aconjunction Thatis itmustspecifywhatgrammaticalcategory orsyntacticclass itisin Aword inthissense isthenagrammaticalunit ofthesametheoreticalkindasmorphemeandsentence Lexeme 词汇单位 词位 语言系统中的最小区别性单位 本术语原来的用意是为了消除可用于正字 音位 语法及词汇层次的词这个术语的歧义性 同时也是为了设计一种更加合适的术语 以有利于对一种语言词汇的讨论 这样 词位被假设为潜伏在如下两组语法变体中的抽象单位 walks walking walked 根据定义 成语也可考虑为词位 如kickthebucket 按规定 词为在词典里被列为独立的词条 Morpheme语素 Identificationofwords 1 Stability2 Relativeuninterruptibility3 AminimumfreeformClassificationofwords1 VariableandinvariablewordsthathaveinflectiveendingsE g follow follows following followedwordswithoutinflectiveendings 2 Closed classwordsandopen classwords 封闭类和开放类 Pronouns preposition conjunctions articles etc arecloseditems Nouns verbs adjectivesandmanyadverbsareallopen classitems Exceptions PrepositionisrelativelyopeninEnglish Expressionssuchasregarding throughout outof accordingto withregardto inspiteof bymeansof arenowrecognizedasprepositionsorcomplexprepositions Wordclass词类 ThisisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar noun pronoun adjective verb adverb preposition conjunction interjection article particles 小品词 auxiliaries determiners 限定词 Formationofword MorphemeandmorphologyMorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning whetheritislexicalorgrammatical Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed Anewformofverbcanbecreatedbyadding itytoanadjective Thisisamorphologicalrulethatmayfunctiontoaccountfortheexistence ortheformation ofasetofverbsendedwith ity suchasamplify simplify electrify orfalsify Andtheseconstitutivepartsineachoftheseverbsaremorphemes Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme 自由语素和黏着语素 Thosewhichmayoccuralone thatis whichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves areFreeMorphemes Incontrast somemustappearwithatleastanothermorphemeandarecalledBoundMorphemes e g dis ed Prefixesandsuffixeshavetraditionallybeencalledboundmorphemes Root affixandstem词根 词缀和词干Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity Allwordscontainarootmorpheme Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme therootorstem Prefix para mini unSuffix ise tionInfix foot feet goose geeseArootmaybefreeorbound butanaffixisnaturallybound e g black Fewboundmorphemes ceive mit tainand cur Wehavealreadydefinedamorphemeasthebasicelementofmeaning asaphonologicalformthatisarbitrarilyunitedwithaparticularmeaningandthatcannotbeanalyzedintosimplerelements Thisdefinitionhaspresentedproblemsforlinguisticanalysisformanyyear althoughitholdsformostofthemorphemesinalanguage Considerwordslikecranberry huckleberry andboysenberry Theberrypartisnoproblem buthuckleandboysenoccuronlywithberry asdidcranuntilthedrinkcranapplejuicecameonthemarket Toaccountforformslikehuckle boysen andcran wehavetoredefinethenotion morpheme Somemorphemesarenotmeaningfulinisolationbutacquiremeaningbyvirtueoftheirconnectionwithothermorphemesinwords Thusthemorphemehucklewhenjoinedwithberryhasthemeaningofaspecialkindofberrywhichissmall round purplish blue andsoon Justasthereseemtobesomemorphemeswhichoccuronlyinasingleword thatis combinedwithanothermorpheme thereareothermorphemeswhichoccurinmanywords combiningwithdifferentmorphemes butforwhichitisverydifficulttofindaconstantmeaning Howwouldyoudefinethe ceiveinreceive perceive conceive orthemitinremit permit commit submit Therearealsowordsthatseemtobecomposedofprefix stemmorphemeinwhichthestemmorphemes likethecranabove neveroccuralone Thuswehaveineptbutno ept insanebutno ane incestbutno cest inertbutno ert disgustedbutno gusted luckwarmbutno luke Tocomplicatethingsalittlefurther therearewordslikestrawberrywherethestrawhasnorelationshiptoanyotherkindofstraw gooseberry whichisunrelatedtogoose andblackberries whichmaybeblueorred Wedonotexpecttosolvethisproblemhere Differentlinguistshaveprovideddifferentsolutionsovertheyears Wewilltreatthese funny formsasmorphemes recognizingthatsomemorphemesacquiretheirmeaningonlybyconnectiontothemorphemesinthewordsinwhichtheyoccur Eventhoughlinguistshavenotbeenabletoagreeonasolutiontotheproblem speakersarenottroubledbyit Thedifficultyisthatourlinguisticknowledgeisunconsciousknowledgeandthataslanguagelearnersanduserswehavegreaterabilitytoformulategrammars withoutknowingthatwedo thanlinguistshavetodiscoverwhatthesegrammarsare Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded Friend infriends andfriendshipinfriendshipsarebothstems Theformershowsthatastemcanbeequivalenttoaroot whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontainarootandaderivationalaffix Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix 屈折语素和派生语素 Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem forinstance thoseinflectionalaffixesinwordssuchastoys walks John s etc Therefore theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword Incontrast derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning e g cite citation generate generation Inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto suchasflower flowers whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter InEnglish inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes whicharealwayswordfinal e g drums walks Mary s Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixes parable depart online orsuffixes e g slaver teacher workable InflectionalmorphologyInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionalaffixes suchasnumber person finiteness aspectandcase whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached P 88 Wordformationcanbefurthersub classifiedintothecompositionaltype compound andthederivationaltype Derivation Compound Nouncompounds Verbcompounds Adjectivecompounds Prepositionalcompounds Compoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds theendocentric 内向的 compoundandexocentric 外向的 compound Endocentriccompound alsodeterminativecompound Themostfrequenttypeofnouncompoundinwhichthesecondelement thebaseword issemanticallydeterminedbythefirstelement coffeehouse dancehall Thegrammaticalrelationsbetweentheindividualelementswithinthecompoundarelargelydissolved theorderoftheelementsalonedeterminestheinterpretation pianoplayerisaplayer butaplayerpianoisapiano Intheinterpretationof potentiallyambiguous semanticrelationsbetweenfirstandsecondelements perceptualcategorieslikeappearance size function make up amongothershaveadeterminativefunction cf GoldCoast place goldsand element goldchain composition goldscale function goldfinch comparison Morphophonemics形态音位学 在形态音为层次上对语言作分析的术语 它常用带括号的大写字母表示 如 F T 为了证明有必要建立这样一种实体 最初用来说明的例子是有关一些英语复数形式中发音的交替 alternation 表示knife和knives 英语词中的 f 与 v 之间的交替只有在这样特定的语法上下文中才出现 在一般情况下是无法预测的 有人提出 这一事实可设一个形态音位 F 来概括 如 naiF 在单数情况下可体现为 F 在复数情况下则体现为 v 这样 每一个形态音位符号代表可出现于某些特定语法环境中的某类音位 Therulethatdeterminesthephoneticformofthepluralmorphemehastraditionallybeencalledmorphophonemicrule inthatitsapplicationisdeterminedbyboththemorphologyandthephonology Whenamorphemehasalternatephoneticforms theseformsarecalledallomorphs 语素变体 bysomelinguists Thus z s and z wouldbeallomorphsoftheregularpluralmorpheme anddeterminedbyrule WordCoinage Newwordsmaybeaddedtothevocabularyorlexiconofalanguagebyderivationalprocesses Newwordsmayalsoenteralanguageinavarietyofotherways Somearecreatedoutrighttofitsomepurpose MadisonAvenuehasaddedmanynewwordstoEnglish suchasKodak nylon Orion andDacron SpecificbrandnamessuchasXerox Kleenex Jell o Frigidaire Brillo andVaselinearenowsometimesusedasthegeneralnamefordifferentbrandsofthesesametypesofproducts Noticethatsomeofthesewordswerecreatedfromexistingwords KleenexfromthewordcleanandJell ofromgel forexample ACRONYMS首字母缩略词 Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords Suchwordsarepronouncedasthespellingindicates NASAas ns UNESCOas yun sko andCAREas ker Radar from radiodetectingandranging laser from lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation andscubafrom self containedunderwaterbreathingapparatus showthecreativeeffortsofwordcoiners asdoessnafu whichisrenderedinpolitecirclesas situationnormal allfouledup BLENDS紧缩词 混成法 Blendsarecompoundsthatare lessthan compounds Smog fromsmoke fog motel frommotor hotel urinalysis fromurine analysisareexamplesofblendsthathaveattainedfulllexicalstatusinEnglish Thewordcranapplemayactuallybeablendofcranberryandapple Broasted frombroiled roasted isablendthathaslimitedacceptanceinthelanguage asdoes LewisCarroll schortle fromchuckle snort Carrollisfamousforboththecoiningandtheblendingofwords BACK FORMATIONS 逆构词法 Newwordsmaybeformedfromalreadyexistingwordsby subtracting anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword Thuspeddlewasderivedfrompeddleronthemistakenassumptionthattheerwasthe agentive suffix Suchwordsarecalledback formations Theverbshawk stoke swindle andeditallcameintothelanguageasback formations ofhawker stoker swindler andeditor Peawasderivedfromasingularword pease byspeakersregardingpeaseasaplural Languagepuristssometimesrailagainstback formationsandciteenthuse fromenthusiasm andept frominept asexamplesoflanguagecorruption Nonetheless manyacceptedwordsgaveenteredthelanguage ABBREVIATIONS缩略词 Abbreviationsoflongerwordsorphrasesalsomaybecome lexicalized narkfornarcoticsagent tec ordick fordetective telly theBritishwordfortelevision profforprofessor teachforteacher anddocfordoctorareonlyafewexamplesofsuch shortforms thatarenowusedaswholewords Someotherexamplesaread bike math gas gym phone bus van Thisprocessissometimescalledclipping EXTENDINGWORDFORMATIONRULES Newwordsmayalsobeformedfromalreadyexistingwordswhichappeartobeanalyzable thatis composedofmorethanonemorpheme Thewordbikini forexample isfromtheBikiniatolloftheMarshallIslands Sincethefirstsyllablebi inothercases likebi polar means two somecleverpersoncalledatoplessbathingsuitamonokini Historically anumberofnewwordsenteredtheEnglishlexiconinthisway Basedonanalogywithsuchpairsasact action exempt exemption revise revision newwordsresurrect preempt televisewereformedfromtheolderwordsresurrection preemption andtelevision WORDSFROMNAMES ThecreativityoflanguagewordcoinageisdelightfullyrevealedbythenumberofwordsintheEnglishvocabularythatderivefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces Sandwich namedforthefourthEarlofSandwich whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilehegambled Robot afterthemechanicalcreaturesintheCzechwriterKarelCapek splayR U R theinitialsstandingfor Rossum sUniversalRobots MorphologyandSyntaxInflectionalMorphology Linguiststraditionallyhavemadeadistinctionbetweenmorphology thecombiningofmorphemesintowords andsyntax thecombiningofwordsintosentences Inthediscussionofderivationalmorphologyandcompounding wesawthatcertainaspectsofmorphologyhavesyntacticimplicationsinthatnounscanbederivedfromverbs verbsfromadjectives adjectivesfromnouns andsoon Thereareotherwaysinwhichmorphologyisdependentonsyntax asweshallseeinthediscussionofinflection WhatisthemeaningoftoinHewantedhertogo Tohasagrammatical meaning asaninfinitivemarker anditisalsoamorphemerequiredbythesyntactic sentence formationrulesofthelanguage Similarly thereare bound morphemesthat liketo areforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers representingsuchconceptsas tense number gender case andsoforth Such bound grammaticalmorphemesarecalledinflectionalmorphemes theyneverchangethesyntacticcategoryofthewordsormorphemestowhichtheyareattached Theyarealwaysattachedtocompletewords Considertheformsoftheverbinthefollowingsentences a Isailtheoceanblue b Hesailstheoceanblue c Johnsailedtheoceanblue d Johnhassailedtheoceanblue e Johnissailingtheoceanblue Insentencebthesattheendoftheverbisan agreement marker itsignifiesthatthesubjectoftheverbis third person is singular andthattheverbisinthe presenttense Itdoesn taddany lexicalmeaning The edand ingendingsaremorphemesrequiredbythesyntacticrulesofthelanguagetosignal tense or aspect Englishisnolongerahighlyinflectedlanguage Butwedohaveotherinflectionalendings Thepluralityofacountnoun forexample isusuallymarkedbyapluralsuffixattachedtothesingularnoun asinboy boys cat cats andsoon AninterestingthingaboutinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishisthattheyusually surround derivationalmorphemes Thus tothederivationallycomplexwordun like ly hood onecanaddapluralendingtoformun like ly hood sbutnot unlikeslyhood Somegrammaticalrelationscanbeexpressedeitherinflectionally morphologically orsyntactically Wecanseethisinthefollowingsentences Theboy sbookisblue Thebookoftheboyisblue Helovesbooks Heisaloverofbooks Theplaneswhichflyarered Theflyingplanesarered Heishungrierthanshe Heismorehungrythanshe SUMMARY Knowingalanguagemeansknowingthewordsofthatlanguage Whenyouknowawordyouknowbothitssoundanditsmeaning theseareinseparablepartsofthelinguisticsign Eachwordisstoredinourmentaldictionarieswithitsphonologicalrepresentation itsmeaning semanticproperties anditssyntacticclass orcategory specification Wordsarenotthemostelementalsound meaningunits somewordsarestructurallycomplex Themostelementalgrammaticalunitsinalanguagearemorphemes Thus moralizersisanEnglishwordcomposedoffourmorphemes moral ize er s Thestudyofwordformationandtheinternalstructureofwordsiscalledmorphology Partofone slinguisticcompetenceincludesknowledgeofthemorphemes words theirpronunciation theirmeanings andhowtheyarecombined Morphemescombineaccordingtothemorphologicalrulesofthelanguage Somemorphemesarebound inthattheymustbejoinedtoothermorphemes arealwayspartsofwordsandneverwordsbythemselves Othermorphemesarefree inthattheyneednotbeattachedtoothermorphemes Free king serf borearefreemorphemes dom asinfreedom kingdom serfdom andboredom isaboundmorpheme Boundmorphemesmaybeprefixes suffixes orinfixes Morphemesmayalsobeclassifiedasderivationalorinflectional Derivationalmorphologicalrulesarelexicalrulesofwordformation Inflectionalmorphemesarecloselyrelatedtotherulessyntax Unliked