语言学课件ppt课件

.,LectureFour,Morphology,.,Morphology:thewordsoflanguage,.,morphology在传统上，它跟句法学相区分，后者研究句中词与词之间的搭配规则。形态学可分成两个领域：屈折变化的研究，即屈折变化形态学（inflectionalmorphology）；构词的研究，即词汇或派生形态学（lexicalderivationalmorphology）。,.,结构语言学(StructuralLinguistics)自索绪尔起，便或者把语素(morpheme)或者把词(word)看作形态学的基本单位。尤其是四五十年代美国结构主义语言学家所使用的技术时，用作语素学（morphemics）这个术语。从这个意义上说，“语素分析”只是共时语言学研究的一部分，而“形态分析”（morphologicalanalysis）则是一个更具有概括性的术语，也可应用于对历史的研究。,.,在生成语言学中，形态学和句法学同属一个层次：语法的句法规则不仅运用于短语和句子，而且也运用于词的结构；形态概念只是在形态音位规则对句法部分的输出作音位表达时才用到。,.,Isolating,InflectingandAgglutinating,.,.,.,Threesensesof“word”,Knowingawordmeansknowingbothitssoundanditsmeaning.1.Thesounds(pronunciation)andthemeaningofawordareinseparable.Thiswaspointedoutbythe19thcenturySwisslinguisticFerdinanddeSaussure,whodiscussedthearbitraryunionbetweenthesounds(form)andmeaning(concept)ofthelinguisticsign.Inthissenseeverywordisalinguisticsign.,.,2.Wordisthecommonfactorunderlyingasetofforms,aunitofvocabulary,alexicalitem,oralexeme(anabstractunitunderlyingthesmallestunitinthelexicalsystemofalanguage,whichappearsindifferentgrammaticalcontexts).,.,3.Thedictionaryrepresentationofawordmustincludewhetheritisanoun,averb,anadjective,anadverb,apreposition,aconjunction.Thatis,itmustspecifywhatgrammaticalcategory,orsyntacticclass,itisin.Aword,inthissense,isthenagrammaticalunit,ofthesametheoreticalkindasmorphemeandsentence.,.,Lexeme-词汇单位，词位,语言系统中的最小区别性单位。本术语原来的用意是为了消除可用于正字/音位、语法及词汇层次的词这个术语的歧义性，同时也是为了设计一种更加合适的术语，以有利于对一种语言词汇的讨论。这样，词位被假设为潜伏在如下两组语法变体中的抽象单位：walks,walking,walked.根据定义，成语也可考虑为词位，如kickthebucket。按规定，词为在词典里被列为独立的词条。,.,Morpheme语素,.,.,.,.,.,Identificationofwords,1.Stability2.Relativeuninterruptibility3.AminimumfreeformClassificationofwords1.VariableandinvariablewordsthathaveinflectiveendingsE.g.:follow,follows,following,followedwordswithoutinflectiveendings,.,2.Closed-classwordsandopen-classwords-封闭类和开放类,Pronouns,preposition,conjunctions,articles,etc.arecloseditems.Nouns,verbs,adjectivesandmanyadverbsareallopen-classitems.Exceptions:PrepositionisrelativelyopeninEnglish.Expressionssuchasregarding,throughout,outof,accordingto,withregardto,inspiteof,bymeansofarenowrecognizedasprepositionsorcomplexprepositions.,.,Wordclass词类,ThisisclosetothenotionofPartsofSpeechintraditionalgrammar.noun.,pronoun,adjective,verb,adverb,preposition,conjunction,interjection,article,particles(小品词),auxiliaries,determiners(限定词),.,Formationofword,MorphemeandmorphologyMorphemeisthesmallestunitoflanguageintermsofrelationshipbetweenexpressionandcontent,aunitthatcannotbedividedintofurthersmallerunitswithoutdestroyingordrasticallyalteringthemeaning,whetheritislexicalorgrammatical.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwords,andtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.,.,Anewformofverbcanbecreatedbyaddingitytoanadjective.Thisisamorphologicalrulethatmayfunctiontoaccountfortheexistence,ortheformation,ofasetofverbsendedwithity,suchasamplify,simplify,electrify,orfalsify.Andtheseconstitutivepartsineachoftheseverbsaremorphemes.,.,Freemorphemeandboundmorpheme-自由语素和黏着语素,Thosewhichmayoccuralone,thatis,whichmayconstitutewordsbythemselves,areFreeMorphemes.Incontrast,somemustappearwithatleastanothermorphemeandarecalledBoundMorphemes,e.g.:dis-,-ed.Prefixesandsuffixeshavetraditionallybeencalledboundmorphemes.Root,affixandstem词根，词缀和词干Arootisthebaseformofawordthatcannotfurtherbeanalyzedwithouttotallossofidentity.,.,Allwordscontainarootmorpheme.Anaffixisthecollectivetermforthetypeofformativethatcanbeusedonlywhenaddedtoanothermorpheme(therootorstem).Prefix:para-,mini-,unSuffix:-ise,-tionInfix:foot/feet,goose/geeseArootmaybefreeorbound,butanaffixisnaturallybound,e.g.:black-.Fewboundmorphemes:-ceive,-mit,-tainandcur.,.,Wehavealreadydefinedamorphemeasthebasicelementofmeaning,asaphonologicalformthatisarbitrarilyunitedwithaparticularmeaningandthatcannotbeanalyzedintosimplerelements.Thisdefinitionhaspresentedproblemsforlinguisticanalysisformanyyear,althoughitholdsformostofthemorphemesinalanguage.Considerwordslikecranberry,huckleberry,andboysenberry.Theberrypartisnoproblem,buthuckleandboysenoccuronlywithberry,asdidcranuntilthedrinkcranapplejuicecameonthemarket.,.,Toaccountforformslikehuckle,boysen,andcran,wehavetoredefinethenotion“morpheme”.Somemorphemesarenotmeaningfulinisolationbutacquiremeaningbyvirtueoftheirconnectionwithothermorphemesinwords.Thusthemorphemehucklewhenjoinedwithberryhasthemeaningofaspecialkindofberrywhichissmall,round,purplish-blue,andsoon.Justasthereseemtobesomemorphemeswhichoccuronlyinasingleword(thatis,combinedwithanothermorpheme),thereareothermorphemeswhichoccurinmanywords,combiningwithdifferentmorphemes,butforwhichitisverydifficulttofindaconstantmeaning.,.,Howwouldyoudefinetheceiveinreceive,perceive,conceive,orthemitinremit,permit,commit,submit?Therearealsowordsthatseemtobecomposedofprefix+stemmorphemeinwhichthestemmorphemes,likethecranabove,neveroccuralone.Thuswehaveineptbutno*ept,insanebutno*ane,incestbutno*cest,inertbutno*ert,disgustedbutno*gusted,luckwarmbutno*luke.Tocomplicatethingsalittlefurther,therearewordslikestrawberrywherethestrawhasnorelationshiptoanyotherkindofstraw,gooseberry,whichisunrelatedtogoose,andblackberries,whichmaybeblueorred.,.,Wedonotexpecttosolvethisproblemhere.Differentlinguistshaveprovideddifferentsolutionsovertheyears.Wewilltreatthese“funny”formsasmorphemes,recognizingthatsomemorphemesacquiretheirmeaningonlybyconnectiontothemorphemesinthewordsinwhichtheyoccur.Eventhoughlinguistshavenotbeenabletoagreeonasolutiontotheproblem,speakersarenottroubledbyit.Thedifficultyisthatourlinguisticknowledgeisunconsciousknowledgeandthataslanguagelearnersanduserswehavegreaterabilitytoformulategrammars(withoutknowingthatwedo)thanlinguistshavetodiscoverwhatthesegrammarsare.,.,Astemisanymorphemeorcombinationofmorphemestowhichaninflectionalaffixcanbeadded.Friend-infriends,andfriendshipinfriendshipsarebothstems.Theformershowsthatastemcanbeequivalenttoaroot,whereasthelattershowsthatastemmaycontainarootandaderivationalaffix.,.,Inflectionalaffixandderivationalaffix-屈折语素和派生语素,Inflectionalaffixesveryoftenaddaminuteordelicategrammaticalmeaningtothestem,forinstance,thoseinflectionalaffixesinwordssuchastoys,walks,Johns,etc.Therefore,theyservetoproducedifferentformsofasingleword.Incontrast,derivationalaffixesoftenchangethelexicalmeaning,e.g.cite,citation;generate,generation.Inflectionalaffixesdonotchangethewordclassofthewordtheyattachto,suchasflower,flowers,whereasderivationalaffixesmightormightnot,suchastherelationbetweensmallandsmallnessfortheformer,andthatbetweenbrotherandbrotherhoodforthelatter.,.,InEnglish,inflectionalaffixesaremostlysuffixes,whicharealwayswordfinal(e.g.drums,walks,Marys).Butderivationalaffixescanbeprefixes(parable,depart,online)orsuffixes(e.g.slaver,teacher,workable).InflectionalmorphologyInflectionisthemanifestationofgrammaticalrelationshipsthroughtheadditionalaffixes,suchasnumber,person,finiteness,aspectandcase,whichdonotchangethegrammaticalclassofthestemstowhichtheyareattached.P.88,.,Wordformationcanbefurthersub-classifiedintothecompositionaltype(compound)andthederivationaltype(Derivation).CompoundNouncompounds,Verbcompounds,Adjectivecompounds,Prepositionalcompounds.Compoundscanbefurtherdividedintotwokinds:theendocentric(内向的)compoundandexocentric(外向的)compound.Endocentriccompound(alsodeterminativecompound),.,Themostfrequenttypeofnouncompoundinwhichthesecondelement(thebaseword)issemanticallydeterminedbythefirstelement:coffeehouse,dancehall.Thegrammaticalrelationsbetweentheindividualelementswithinthecompoundarelargelydissolved,theorderoftheelementsalonedeterminestheinterpretation:pianoplayerisaplayer,butaplayerpianoisapiano.,.,Intheinterpretationof(potentiallyambiguous)semanticrelationsbetweenfirstandsecondelements,perceptualcategorieslikeappearance,size,function,make-up,amongothershaveadeterminativefunction,cf.GoldCoast(place),goldsand(element),goldchain(composition),goldscale(function).goldfinch(comparison).,.,Morphophonemics形态音位学,在形态音为层次上对语言作分析的术语。它常用带括号的大写字母表示，如：F,T。为了证明有必要建立这样一种实体，最初用来说明的例子是有关一些英语复数形式中发音的交替(alternation),表示knife和knives。英语词中的/f/与/v/之间的交替只有在这样特定的语法上下文中才出现，在一般情况下是无法预测的。有人提出，这一事实可设一个形态音位F来概括，如naiF在单数情况下可体现为F，在复数情况下则体现为v。这样，每一个形态音位符号代表可出现于某些特定语法环境中的某类音位。,.,Therulethatdeterminesthephoneticformofthepluralmorphemehastraditionallybeencalledmorphophonemicrule,inthatitsapplicationisdeterminedbyboththemorphologyandthephonology.Whenamorphemehasalternatephoneticforms,theseformsarecalledallomorphs(语素变体)bysomelinguists.Thus,z,sandzwouldbeallomorphsoftheregularpluralmorpheme,anddeterminedbyrule.,.,WordCoinage,Newwordsmaybeaddedtothevocabularyorlexiconofalanguagebyderivationalprocesses.Newwordsmayalsoenteralanguageinavarietyofotherways.Somearecreatedoutrighttofitsomepurpose.MadisonAvenuehasaddedmanynewwordstoEnglish,suchasKodak,nylon,Orion,andDacron.SpecificbrandnamessuchasXerox,Kleenex,Jell-o;Frigidaire,Brillo,andVaselinearenowsometimesusedasthegeneralnamefordifferentbrandsofthesesametypesofproducts.Noticethatsomeofthesewordswerecreatedfromexistingwords:KleenexfromthewordcleanandJell-ofromgel,forexample.,.,ACRONYMS首字母缩略词,Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords.Suchwordsarepronouncedasthespellingindicates:NASAasns,UNESCOasyunsko,andCAREasker.Radar,from“radiodetectingandranging,”laser,from“lightamplificationbystimulatedemissionofradiation,”andscubafrom“self-containedunderwaterbreathingapparatus,”showthecreativeeffortsofwordcoiners,asdoessnafu,whichisrenderedinpolitecirclesas“situationnormal,allfouledup”.,.,BLENDS紧缩词/混成法,Blendsarecompoundsthatare“lessthan”compounds.Smog,fromsmoke+fog;motel,frommotor+hotel;urinalysis,fromurine+analysisareexamplesofblendsthathaveattainedfulllexicalstatusinEnglish.Thewordcranapplemayactuallybeablendofcranberryandapple.Broasted,frombroiled+roasted,isablendthathaslimitedacceptanceinthelanguage,asdoes,LewisCarrollschortle,fromchuckle+snort.Carrollisfamousforboththecoiningandtheblendingofwords.,.,BACK-FORMATIONS-逆构词法,Newwordsmaybeformedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.Thuspeddlewasderivedfrompeddleronthemistakenassumptionthattheerwasthe“agentive”suffix.Suchwordsarecalledback-formations.Theverbshawk,stoke,swindle,andeditallcameintothelanguageasback-formations-ofhawker,stoker,swindler,andeditor.Peawasderivedfromasingularword,pease,byspeakersregardingpeaseasaplural.Languagepuristssometimesrailagainstback-formationsandciteenthuse(fromenthusiasm)andept(frominept)asexamplesoflanguagecorruption.Nonetheless,manyacceptedwordsgaveenteredthelanguage.,.,ABBREVIATIONS缩略词,Abbreviationsoflongerwordsorphrasesalsomaybecome“lexicalized”:narkfornarcoticsagent;tec(ordick)fordetective;telly,theBritishwordfortelevision;profforprofessor;teachforteacher;anddocfordoctorareonlyafewexamplesofsuch“shortforms”thatarenowusedaswholewords.Someotherexamplesaread,bike,math,gas,gym,phone,bus,van.Thisprocessissometimescalledclipping.,.,EXTENDINGWORDFORMATIONRULES,Newwordsmayalsobeformedfromalreadyexistingwordswhichappeartobeanalyzable_thatis,composedofmorethanonemorpheme.Thewordbikini,forexample,isfromtheBikiniatolloftheMarshallIslands.Sincethefirstsyllablebi-inothercases,likebi-polar,means“two,”somecleverpersoncalledatoplessbathingsuitamonokini.Historically,anumberofnewwordsenteredtheEnglishlexiconinthisway.Basedonanalogywithsuchpairsasact/action,exempt/exemption,revise/revision,newwordsresurrect,preempt,televisewereformedfromtheolderwordsresurrection,preemption,andtelevision.,.,WORDSFROMNAMES,ThecreativityoflanguagewordcoinageisdelightfullyrevealedbythenumberofwordsintheEnglishvocabularythatderivefrompropernamesofindividualsorplaces.Sandwich:namedforthefourthEarlofSandwich,whoputhisfoodbetweentwoslicesofbreadsothathecouldeatwhilehegambled;Robot:afterthemechanicalcreaturesintheCzechwriterKarelCapeksplayR.U.R.,theinitialsstandingfor“RossumsUniversalRobots”;,.,MorphologyandSyntaxInflectionalMorphology,Linguiststraditionallyhavemadeadistinctionbetweenmorphology,thecombiningofmorphemesintowords,andsyntax,thecombiningofwordsintosentences.Inthediscussionofderivationalmorphologyandcompounding,wesawthatcertainaspectsofmorphologyhavesyntacticimplicationsinthatnounscanbederivedfromverbs,verbsfromadjectives,adjectivesfromnouns,andsoon.Thereareotherwaysinwhichmorphologyisdependentonsyntax,asweshallseeinthediscussionofinflection.,.,WhatisthemeaningoftoinHewantedhertogo?Tohasagrammatical“meaning”asaninfinitivemarker,anditisalsoamorphemerequiredbythesyntactic,sentence-formationrulesofthelanguage.Similarly,thereare“bound”morphemesthat,liketo,areforthemostpartpurelygrammaticalmarkers,representingsuchconceptsas“tense,”“number,”“gender,”case,”andsoforth.,.,Such“bound”grammaticalmorphemesarecalledinflectionalmorphemes:theyneverchangethesyntacticcategoryofthewordsormorphemestowhichtheyareattached.Theyarealwaysattachedtocompletewords.Considertheformsoftheverbinthefollowingsentences:a.Isailtheoceanblue.b.Hesailstheoceanblue.c.Johnsailedtheoceanblue.d.Johnhassailedtheoceanblue.e.Johnissailingtheoceanblue.,.,Insentencebthesattheendoftheverbisan“agreement”marker;itsignifiesthatthesubjectoftheverbis“third-person,”is“singular,”andthattheverbisinthe“presenttense.”Itdoesntaddany“lexicalmeaning.”Theedandingendingsaremorphemesrequiredbythesyntacticrulesofthelanguagetosignal“tense”or“aspect.”,.,Englishisnolongerahighlyinflectedlanguage.Butwedohaveotherinflectionalendings.Thepluralityofacountnoun,forexample,isusuallymarkedbyapluralsuffixattachedtothesingularnoun,asinboy/boys,cat/cats,andsoon.AninterestingthingaboutinflectionalmorphemesinEnglishisthattheyusually“surround”derivationalmorphemes.Thus,tothederivationallycomplexwordun+like+ly+hood,onecanaddapluralendingtoformun+like+ly+hood+sbutnot*unlikeslyhood,.,Somegrammaticalrelationscanbeexpressedeitherinflectionally(morphologically)orsyntactically.Wecanseethisinthefollowingsentences:Theboysbookisblue.Thebookoftheboyisblue.Helovesbooks.Heisaloverofbooks.Theplaneswhichflyarered.Theflyingplanesarered.Heishungrierthanshe.Heismorehungrythanshe.,.,SUMMARY,Knowingalanguagemeansknowingthewordsofthatlanguage.Whenyouknowawordyouknowbothitssoundanditsmeaning;theseareinseparablepartsofthelinguisticsign.Eachwordisstoredinourmentaldictionarieswithitsphonologicalrepresentation,itsmeaning(semanticproperties),anditssyntacticclass,orcategory,specification.,.,Wordsarenotthemostelementalsound-meaningunits;somewordsarestructurallycomplex.Themostelementalgrammaticalunitsinalanguagearemorphemes.Thus,moralizersisanEnglishwordcomposedoffourmorphemes:moral+ize+er+s.,.,Thestudyofwordformationandtheinternalstructureofwordsiscalledmorphology.Partofoneslinguisticcompetenceincludesknowledgeofthemorphemes,words,theirpronunciation,theirmeanings,andhowtheyarecombined.Morphemescombineaccordingtothemorphologicalrulesofthelanguage.,.,Somemorphemesarebound,inthattheymustbejoinedtoothermorphemes,arealwayspartsofwordsandneverwordsbythemselves,Othermorphemesarefree,inthattheyneednotbeattachedtoothermorphemes,Free,king,serf,borearefreemorphemes;-dom,asinfreedom,kingdom,serfdom,andboredom,isaboundmorpheme.Boundmorphemesmaybeprefixes,suffixes,orinfixes,.,Morphemesmayalsobeclassifiedasderivationalorinflectional.Derivationalmorphologicalrulesarelexicalrulesofwordformation.Inflectionalmorphemesarecloselyrelatedtotherule