语言学第四章chapter4ppt课件

.,Chapter4Syntax,.,outline,4.1Introduction4.2WordClasses4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach4.4TheDescriptiveApproach4.4.1Structuralanalysis4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar4.6TransformationalGrammar4.7SystemicFunctionalGrammar,.,4.1Introduction,Syntax:studyoftheinternalstructuresofsentenceandtherulesforthecombinationofwords.DifferencebetweenmorphologyandsyntaxMorphology:theinternalstructureofwordsSyntax:thecombinationofwords,.,Syntacticrules,(1)a.Thehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirds.b.Theblackbirdsfearthecriesofthehunter.(2)a.Jacklookeduptheword.b.Jacklookedthewordup.(3)*Criesfearthetheofhunterblackbirdsthe.Conclusion:Thestructureofsentencesuchaswordordercanchangethemeaning.Everysentenceisasequenceofwordsbutnoteverysequenceofwordsisasentence.Sentenceformationhasrules,sothatwehavewell/illformedor(un)grammaticalsentences.,.,4.2WordClasses,Nounsarewordsusedtorefertopeople,objects,creatures,places,events,qualities,phenomenaandabstractideasasiftheywereallthings.cats,dogs,war,wedding,courage,beauty,rain,love,hatredAdjectivesarewordsthatdescribethething,quality,stateoractionwhichanounrefersto.beautiful,redVerbsarewordsusedtorefertovariousactionsandstatesinvolvingthe“things”inevents.run,walk,seem,.,Adverbsarewordsthatdescribeoraddtothemeaningofaverb,anadjective,anotheradverb,orasentence,andwhichanswersthequestionsintroducedbyhow,where,when,etc.carefully,slowly,then,nowPrepositionsarewordsusedwithnounsinphrasesprovidinginformationabouttime,placeandotherconnectionsinvolvingactionsandthings.,.,Pronounsarewordswhichmayreplacenounsornounphrases.Conjunctionsarewordsusedtoconnectandindicaterelationshipsbetweeneventsandthings.Articles,Exclamations,Numerals,.,Thedefinitionsaboveareusefulforidentifyingmostforms,buttheyarenevercompletelyaccurate.Adifferentapproachmightfocusonsomeotherpropertiesofthewordclasses.Forexample,anouncanbedefinedasaformthatcomesafteranarticle(a,anandthe)andcantakeinflectionsforpossessive(-s)andplural(-s).Ofcourse,notallnouns(rmationandmud)haveallthesecharacteristics.,.,Phrasestructurerules,Representation(通过词性表征句法):ThehunterfearsthecriesoftheblackbirdsArt+N+V+Art+N+Prep+Art+NTheruleswhichgovernthestructureofphrasesareknownasphrasestructurerulesorrewriterules.Suchrulesallowforthegenerationofgrammaticalsentencesinalanguage.,.,4.3ThePrescriptiveApproach,Definition:Anapproachtakenbysomegrammarians,mainlyineighteenth-centuryEngland,wholaydownrulesforthecorrector“proper”useofEnglishbyfollowingLatin.,.,(a)Youmustnotsplitinfinitives.(b)Youmustnotendasentencewithapreposition.Toboldlygo.Togoboldly.Prepositionisnotawordyoucanendasentencewith.(funny),.,4.4TheDescriptiveApproach,Definition:Anapproachtakenthroughoutthe20thcenturywhichattemptstodescribetheregularstructuresofthelanguageasitisusedbycollectingsamples.Varioustechniquesmaybeemployed.,.,4.4.1Structuralanalysis,Adescriptiveapproachstudyingthedistributionoflinguisticformsinalanguagebymeansoftestframes,whichcanbesentenceswithemptyslotsinthem.（分布、测试框架、替代、纵聚合关系）(4)The_makesalotofnoise.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog)(5)Ihearda_yesterday.(nouns:car,radio,child,dog),.,(6)_makesalotofnoise.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent)(7)Ihear_yesterday.(nounphrases:it,thecar,adog,Peter,anewcar,thescholarwithanAmericanaccent),.,4.4.2Immediateconstituentanalysis(Bloomfield:直接成分分析法),Languageislinearandhierarchical.Wecananalyzelanguagefromitslargestleveltothesmallestlevel,thatisfromitsconstructiontoitsconstituentsbymeansofsubstitutabilityandexpansion.Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.,.,Thefirstdivisionsorcutsofaconstructionarecalledimmediateconstituentsandthefinalcutsastheultimateconstituents.Theapproachtodividethesentenceupintoitsimmediateconstituentsbyusingbinarycuttinguntilobtainingitsultimateconstituentsiscalledimmediateconstituentanalysis(IC).,.,Immediateconstituentanalysis(ICanalysis)hastwowaysofrepresentation:Treediagrambrackets,.,Treediagram,(8)Themanboughtacar.,.,Brackets,Bracketscanalsobeusedbutarearguablylesseasytoread.(9)a.themanboughtacarb.themanboughtacarc.themanboughtacard.themanboughtacar,.,Merit:SolvingDisambiguity,oldmenandwomen,.,4.5ConstituentStructureGrammar(成分结构语法),Agrammarwhichanalyzessentencesusingonlytheideaofconstituency,whichrevealsahierarchyofstructurallevels.Themainprincipleislabelingandbracketingbasedontheideathatlinguisticunitscanbepartsoflargerconstructionsorcanthemselvesbemadeupofsmallerparts.(binaryandverb-centered),.,Treediagram,Binary,Verb-centered,.,GenerativeRules(早期转换语法的概念短语结构语法),Thesyntaxofalanguageisthenseenasasetofruleswhichgeneratesentencesinthatlanguage.SNPVPVPVtr.NPNPArtNVtr.buy,sell,build,repair,wash,etc.Nman,woman,car,house,bicycle,etc.Arta,an,the,.,(12)a.Themanboughtacar.b.Themansoldacar.c.Thewomanrepairedthebicycle.,Sentencesgenerated：,.,Morecomplexrules,ThereisalargenumberofsentencesinEnglishthatsuchrulescannotproduce.Thissetofruleshasverylimitedgenerativepower.Theaboverulesonlydealwithsimplenounphrasesandtransitiveverbs.Theydonotallowustodealwithanypartoftheverbstructuresuchastense,modalsoraspect.,.,.,Sentencesgenerated：,(13)a.Themansellsthecarinthegarage.b.Thewomanwashesthebicycleinthestreet.c.Theboyrepairsthebicycleinthehouse.,.,Merit:SolvingDisambiguity,(14)Thehousearoundthecorner(Recursion,Recursiveness递归性)MaryhelpedGeorge.CathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.JohnsaidCathythoughtMaryhelpedGeorge.,.,Achildrensrhyme:ThisisthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.ThisisthewomanthatmarriedthemanthatkeepsthedogthatchasedthecatthatlivedinthehousethatJackbuilt.,.,SomeproblemsofCSG:,A.LexicalselectionrestrictionWithsimpleconstituentstructurerules,anynouncanbeintroducedinacombinationwithanyverb.Thisdoesnothappeninnaturallanguage.Wecannotsay:(15)*Thebeliefwashedanapple.,.,B.Discontinuousness(16)Theboycleanedtheroomup.(17)Thestudentlookedthewordupinthedictionary.C.Relationbetweensentencesthatseemtobecloselyrelatedstructurallyandsemantically(18)a.BrianhitGeorgeb.GeorgewashitbyBrian.,.,NoamChomsky,(1928-)，founderofTransformationalGrammar,4.6TransformationalGrammar,.,Grammar:thereinTransformationalGrammar,isinthebroadestway,atheoryofgrammarincludingphonologyandsemantics.AlinguistictheoryWeshallonlyfocusonthesyntacticaspectoftransformationalgrammar.,.,I.Classicaltheory,Threeparts:phrasestructurerulestransformationalrules,morphophonemicrules.SNP+VP;simpleactivedeclarativekernelsentences(短语结构规则建立在成分结构分析法的基础之上，但是更加形式化；强调自上而下的生成。),.,Atransformationruleisasequenceofsymbolswhichcouldberewrittenconventionallyasdifferentsequence.passivetransformationNP1AuxVNP2NP2AuxbeenVbyNP1(19)a.Theboyhasrepairedthebicycle.b.Thebicyclehasbeenrepairedbytheboy.,.,Themorphophonemicruleswouldapplytotheoutputofthetransformationalrules.Theirfunctionistoprovidethecorrectmorphologicalshapetothevariouspartsofthestructureandfinallytogivetheappropriatephonologicaldescription.(公式-言语表达),.,Treediagram,.,II.Standardtheory,competenceandperformance(Chapter1)deepstructureandsurfacestructureThedeepstructureofasentenceisitsmostbasicstructurebothsemanticallyandsyntactically.Thesurfacestructureistheformthatpeoplecanactuallysay.Itisfairlyarbitrary.Twosuperficiallysimilarstructuresmayconveyasubstantiallydifferentmessage.,.,deepstructureandsurfacestructure,Considerthefollowingpairofsentences:(20)a.Johniseasytoplease.b.Johniseagertoplease.InthefirstsentenceJohnisdoingthepleasing,andinthelatterheisonthereceivingend.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.,.,Standardtheory,.,Differentstagesofgenerativegrammar,III.ExtendedStandardTheoryIV.RevisedExtendedStandardTheoryV.GovernmentandBindingTheory(GB)PrinciplesandParametersApproach(Pboundmorphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformawordsuchasun-,diss-,anti-,-ful,-ish.,.,Questions(continued),2.Giveexamplestotellthedifferencebetweenderivationandcompounding.TheyretwoimportantwaysofformingnewwordsintheEnglish