语言学第六章chapter6ppt课件

.,Chapter6Pragmatics,.,6.1Introduction6.1.1Background6.1.2Definition6.2Micropragmatics6.2.1Reference（指称）6.2.2Dexis（指示）6.2.3Anaphora（照应）6.2.4Presupposition（预设）6.3Macropragmatics6.3.1Speechacttheory（言语行为理论）6.3.2TheCooperativePrinciple（合作原则）6.3.3ThePolitenessPrinciple（礼貌原则）,.,6.1Introduction,Whenadiplomatsaysyes,hemeansperhaps;Whenhesaysperhaps,hemeansno;Whenhesaysno,heisnotadiplomat.Whenaladysaysno,shemeansperhaps;Whenshesaysperhaps,shemeansyes;Whenshesaysyes,sheisnotalady.Voltaire(Quoted,inSpanish,inEscandell1993.)speakersmeaning/languageinuse,.,.,.,.,.,Amelamed/ml:md/，小学教师,Hebrewteacherdiscoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse,sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife.Thenotereads:Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy.Whenthestudentaskedwhyhehadwrittenyourslippers,themelamedanswered:Yold!Fool!IfIwrote“my”slippers,shewouldread“myslippersandwouldsendherslippers.WhatcouldIdowithherslippers?SoIwrote“your”slippers,shellread“yourslippersandsendmemine.”,.,Backgroundof“Pragmatics”,CharlesMorris(19031979)wasconcernedwiththestudyofthescienceofsigns,whichhecalledsemiotic.Hedistinguished3branchesofsemiotics（符号三分法）:,.,Syntaxaddressestheformalrelationsofsignstooneanother,semanticstherelationofsignstowhattheydenote,andpragmaticstherelationofsignstotheirusersandinterpreters.,.,Pragmaticsisthestudyoftherelationshipsbetweenlinguisticformsandtheusersofthoseforms.Inthisthree-partdistinction,onlypragmaticsallowshumansintotheanalysis.,.,Definitions,1“Pragmaticsisthestudyofspeakersmeaning.”2“Pragmaticsisthestudyofcontextualmeaning”3“Pragmaticsisthestudyofhowmoregetscommunicatedthanissaid”4“Pragmaticsisthestudyoftheexpressionofrelativedistance.”(Yule:2008).,.,Pragmaticsisastudyoflanguageinuse.,.,6.2Micropramatics,Iwaswaitingforthebus,buthejustdrovebywithoutstopping.Tostudythemeaningofsuchpiecesoflanguageinsmallercontextsiscalledmicropragmatics.Phenomenasuchasreference,deixis,anaphora,andpresupposition,arethetopicsinthisfield.,.,6.2.1Reference,Inthereferentialtheory(namingtheory),itisassumedthatthewordsweusetoidentifythingsareinsomedirectrelationshiptothosethings:(1)a:CanIlookatyourShakespeare?b:Sure,itsontheshelfoverthere.(usenamesofpeopletorefertothings),.,Thekeyprocesshereiscalledinference.Aninferenceisanyadditionalinformationusedbythehearertoconnectwhatissaidtowhatmustbemeant.Inpragmatics,theactbywhichaspeakerorwriteruseslanguagetoenableahearerorreadertoidentifysomethingiscalledreference.,.,6.2.2Deixis,Deixis(指示),whichmeans“pointing”vialanguage,theinterpretationofmanywordsandexpressionsbyreferencetothesituationalcontextoftheutterance.Anylinguisticformusedtodothis“pointing”iscalledadeicticexpression,orindexical.InEnglish,wordslikehere,there,this,that,now,andthen,aswellasmostpronouns,suchasI,we,you,he,her,them.(2)Youllhavetobringthatbacktomorrow,becausetheyarentherenow.,.,Fivetypesofdeixis1.Persondeixis:me,you,him,them.2.Timedeixis:now,then,tonight,lastweek.3.Space/spatial/placedeixis:here,there,andyonder.4.Discoursedeixis:temporal/spatialintheprevious/nextparagraph,orHaveyouheardthisjoke?inthischapter.5.Socialdeixis:honorifics(敬语,ProfessorLi);kinshiprelationship(LiJie李姐inChinese),.,Amelamed小学教师,Hebrewteacherdiscoveringthathehadlefthiscomfortableslippersbackinthehouse,sentastudentafterthemwithanoteforhiswife.Thenotereads:Sendmeyourslipperswiththisboy.Whenthestudentaskedwhyhehadwrittenyourslippers,themelamedanswered:Yold!Fool!IfIwrote“my”slippers,shewouldread“myslippersandwouldsendherslippers.WhatcouldIdowithherslippers?SoIwrote“your”slippers,shellread“yourslippersandsendmemine.”,.,Anaphora(照应)iscoreferenceofoneexpressionwithitsantecedent.Theantecedentprovidestheinformationnecessaryfortheexpressionsinterpretation.Thisisoftenunderstoodasanexpression“referring”backtotheantecedent.,6.2.3Anaphora,.,(3)A:CanIborrowyourdictionary?B:Yeah,itsonthetable.antecedent,anaphororanaphoricexpression.indirectanaphororbridgingreference:(4)Iwalkedintotheroom.Thewindowslookedouttothebay.,.,6.2.4Presupposition,Presupposition(预设):Theinformationthataspeakerassumestobealreadyknown.(TheCambridgeEncyclopaediaofLanguage,1987)（5）Susanssisterboughttwohouses.ThissentencepresupposesthatSusanexistsandthatshehasasister.,.,Inanylanguage,therearesomeexpressionsorconstructionswhichcanactasthesourcesofpresuppositions.Thiskindofexpressionsorconstructionsiscalledpresupposition-triggers.,.,presupposition-triggers(预设触发语)(for“presupposes”):A.Definitivedescriptions（限定性描述）(6)Johnsaw/didntseethemanwithtwoheads.Thereexistsamanwithtwoheads.B.Factiveverbs（叙述动词）(7)Johnrealized/didntrealizethathewasindebt.Johnwasindebt.C.Changeofstateverbs（状态改变类动词）(8)Joanbegan/didntbegintobeatherhusband.Joanhadntbeenbeatingherhusband.,.,D.Iteratives（重复）(9)Theflyingsaucercame/didntcomeagain.Theflyingsaucercamebefore.E.Temporalclauses（时间小句）(10)WhileChomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics,therestofsocialsciencewas/wasntasleep.Chomskywasrevolutionizinglinguistics.F.Cleftsentences（分裂句）(11)Itwas/wasntHenrythatkissedRosie.SomeonekissedRosie.G.Comparisonsandcontrasts（比较与对比）(12)Carolis/isntabetterlinguistthanBarbara.Barbaraisalinguist.,.,6.3Macropragmatics,Moreoftenthannot,wedontconfineourstudytoindividualutterances,butextendouranalysistolargerpiecesoflanguage,forthesimplereasonthatlanguageuseisanintricateprocess.,.,Theresearchontheanalysesoflargerchunksoflanguage,suchasawholeconversation,anarticleorevenachapterofanoveloroneactofaplayintheuserinteractionconcerningthemechanismsbywhichspeakers/writersencodetheirmessageinskilfulwaysandhowhearers/readersarriveattheintendedmeaningsinspiteofthedifferencesbetweentheliteralmeaningandtheintendedmeaningiscalledmacropragmatics.,.,Differenttheoriesinmacropragmatics:Speechacttheory（言语行为理论）TheCooperativePrinciple（合作原则）ThePolitenessPrinciple（礼貌原则）Philosophers,intheirsearchforanswerstotheirphilosophicalpuzzles,turnedtolanguagestudies.Theycameupwithseveralapproachestohowlanguageisusedandhowcertainproblemsseemtobeexplainedbylanguageinuse.Theyoftenrefertotheseapproachesasphilosophyoflanguagebutlinguistsprefertocallitpragmatics(macropragmatics).,.,6.3.1Speechacttheory,SpeechacttheorywasproposedbyJ.L.AustinandhasbeendevelopedbyJ.R.Searle.Basically,theybelievethatlanguageisnotonlyusedtoinformortodescribethings,itisoftenusedto“dothings”,toperformacts.Speechacts:actionsperformedviautterances.(13)Youarefired.,.,J.L.AustinPerformativesandConstativesTrichotomyofSA（三分法）Illocutionaryact（言外行为）,.,1）PerformativesandConstatives（施为语：“做事”；陈述语：“陈说”）,Iannounceyouhusbandandwife.Ibetyoutendollarsitwillraintomorrow.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Ineedthesalt.Constatives:sentencesthatareusedtostateordescribethings.Performatives:sentencesthatareusedtodothings.Thiskindofsentencescannotbetrueorfalse.,.,Itisarguedthatevennon-performativesentencesareusedtoperformacts.(14)“Itssuchafinedaytoday.”(suggestinganouting)Soitisclaimedthatallsentences,inadditiontowhatevertheymean,performspecificactionsor“dothings”throughspecificforces.,.,2）Threetypesofspeechacts,Afterrejectingthedistinctionbetweenperformativesandconstatives,Austinputforwardhisnewmodel:aspeakerwhileproducinganutteranceisinmostcasesperformingthreeactssimultaneously.,.,.,Canyoutellthedifferentspeechactsperformedintheutterances?（练习题）(15)Ibelieveheisinnocent.(16)Getoutofhere!(17)Nexttime,Illarriveontime.(18)ImsorryforthetroubleIbroughttoyou.(19)Iannounceyouhusbandandwife.,.,Infact,wemightutterittomakeastatement,arequest,anexplanation,orforsomeothercommunicativepurposes.Thisisalsogenerallyknownastheillocutionaryforceoftheutterance.Buthowdopeopleknowwhichspeechactisintended?Apossibleansweristospecifyfelicityconditionscircumstancesunderwhichitwouldbeappropriatetointerpretsomethingasaparticulartypeofspeechact.Forexample,ifagenuineorderhasbeengiven,thehearermustbephysicallycapableofcarryingitout(“Getmeastar”isnot),andmustbeabletoidentifytheobjectinvolved.,.,Theliteralmeaningistakencareofbysemanticsandtheeffectofanutteranceissubjecttomanyfactors,includingsocialpsychology,morethanlinguisticscancopewith.So,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithisillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.Itisalsodesignedtoshowcoherenceinseeminglyincoherentconversations.(20)a.Husband:Thatsthephone.b.Wife:Iminthebathroom.(illocutionaryact)c.Husband:Okay.,.,3）Classificationofillocutionaryacts,J.R.Searle:suggestsfivebasiccategoriesofillocutionaryacts,.,.,4）Indirectspeechacts,Adifferentapproachtodistinguishingtypesofspeechactscanbemadeonthebasisofthethreebasicsentencestypes：(21)a.declarative:Youwearaseatbelt.(statement)errogative:Doyouwearaseatbelt?(question)c.imperative:Wearaseatbelt!(command/request)Wheneverthereisadirectrelationshipbetweenastructureandafunction,wehaveadirectspeechact.,.,Adeclarativeusedtomakeastatementisadirectspeechact,butadeclarativeusedtomakearequestisanindirectspeechact.Forexample:(22)Itscoldoutside.a.Iherebytellyouabouttheweather.(statement:directspeechact)b.Iherebyrequestofyouthatyouclosethedoor.(request/command:indirectspeechact),.,(23)YoudontwanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV.Whatwillyousay?练习题a.Moveoutoftheway!b.DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV?c.Icantseethescreen.d.Itsharmfultoyoureyes.Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication?,.,Toensureasuccessfulcommunication,collaborationisanecessaryfactor.Inmuchoftheprecedingdiscussion,wehaveassumedthatspeakersandlistenersinvolvedinconversationsaregenerallycooperatingwitheachother.Forexample,inacceptingspeakerspresuppositions,listenersnormallyhavetoassumethataspeakerwhosaysmycarreallydoeshavethecarthatismentionedandisnttryingtomisleadthelistener.,6.3.2Thecooperativeprinciple,.,1）TheCooperativePrinciple(p.154),H.P.Grice(1975)suggeststhatthereisasetofassumptionsguidingtheconductofconversation.TheCooperativePrinciple(CP).Thecooperativeprincipleisstatedinthefollowingway:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Simply,CPmeansweshouldsaywhatistrueinaclearandrelevantmanner.,.,2）Themaxims,A.Themaximofquantity1.Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).2.Donnotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.B.ThemaximofqualityTrytomakeyourcontributiononethatistrue.1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.,.,C.ThemaximofrelationMakesurethatwhateveryousayisrelevanttotheconversationathand.D.ThemaximofmannerBeperspicuous.1.Avoidobscurityofexpression.2.Avoidambiguity.3.Bebrief(avoidunnecessaryprolixity).4.Beorderly.,.,Examples:(24)Husband:Wherearethecarkeys?Wife:Theyreonthetableinthehall.Inthemiddleoftheirlunchhour,onewomanasksanotherhowshelikesthehamburgersheiseating,andreceivestheanswerin:(25)Ahamburgerisahamburger.(quantity)Doyouthinkthisutteranceiscooperative?Whatcanyouinferredfromthesentence?,.,3）Conversationalimplicature会话涵义,AccordingtoGrice,utteranceinterpretationisnotamatterofdecodingmessages,butratherinvolves(i)takingthemeaningofthesentencestogetherwithcontextualinformation,(ii)usinginferencerules,and(iii)workingoutwhatthespeakermeansonthebasisoftheassumptionthattheutteranceconformstothemaxims.ThemainadvantageofthisapproachfromGricespointofviewisthatitprovidesapragmaticexplanationforawiderangeofphenomena,especiallyforconversationalimplicaturesakindofextrameaningthatisnotliterallycontainedintheutterance.,.,However,inactualspeechcommunication,itisoftenthecasethatspeakerscannotordonotobservetheCPanditsmaxims.(26)Heisatiger.(27)Tomhaswoodenears.Metaphorsandironyarestandardexamplesofthefloutingofthemaximofquality(违反质准则).,.,Violationofthemaximofquantitybyprovidinglessormoreinformationthanisrequired(违反量准则):(28)Girlsaregirls.(tautology.)(29)ImAlexfromLeeds,26,unmarried.In(28),thehearerwouldinferfromthespecificcontextthatthespeakerprobablymeanthatgirlsarecareful,thoughtful,andconsiderateorliketotalkaboutshoppingandfashion.Ifamanintroduceshimselftoagirlataparty,asin(29),hewouldmakethegirlsuspiciousofhismotive.,.,Themaximsofrelationandmannercanalsonotbeobserved(违反关系、方式准则):(30)A:Imoutofpetrol.B:Thereisgarageroundthecorner.(31)A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.p157,.,6.3.3Thepolitenessprinciple(PP),(32)YoudontwanttheaddresseetostandinfrontoftheTV.Whatwillyousay?（练习题）a.Moveoutoftheway!b.DoyouhavetostandinfrontoftheTV?c.Icantseethescreen.d.Itsharmfultoyoureyes.Requestsareoftenperformedindirectly.Whydopeopletendtouseindirectspeechactsindailycommunication?合作原则只说明了交际者有意违反合作原则及其准则可以获得特殊的会话涵义。但是，却并未解释交际双方为什么要这样说话。,.,Inmostcases,theindirectnessismotivatedbyconsiderationsofpoliteness.Politenessisusuallyregardedbymostpragmatistsasameansorstrategywhichisusedbyaspeakertoachievevariouspurposes,suchassavingface,establishingandmaintainingharmonioussocialrelationsinconversation.Leech(1983:80)looksonpolitenessascrucialinaccountingfor“whypeopleareoftensoindirectinconveyingwhattheymean”.HethusthePolitenessPrinciple:,.,FollowingGricespresentationoftheCP,LeechputsforwardsixmaximsofthePolitenessPrinciple:Minimize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofimpolitebeliefsandmaximize(otherthingsbeingequal)theexpressionofpolitebeliefs.,.,MaximofTact得体/策略准则(indirectivesandcommissives)(i)Minimizecosttoother使他人受损最下(ii)Maximizebenefittoother使他人受惠最大(33)Travelandexpenseswillbepaidforand,ifyouwish,youcouldalsogiveaplenarypaper.（会议邀请函）MaximofGenerosity慷慨准则(indirectivesandcommissives)(i)Minimizebenefittoself(ii)Maximizecosttoself(34).Theidealthingwouldbetodoatelnetchat,ifitweretobepossible.Butsinceyouareathome.Thatsapromise.(为对方代劳工作),.,MaximofApprobation赞扬准则(inexpressivesandassertives)(i)Minimizedispraiseofother(ii)Maximizepraiseofother(35)Goodtohearfromyou.Ivejusthadaquicklookatyourwebpages.Looksgood!MaximofModesty谦虚准则(inexpressivesandassertives)(i)Minimizepraiseofself(ii)MaximizedispraiseofselfThemaximofmodestyaccountsforthebenignnatureofutteranceslike(36)andtheoffensivenatureof(37).(36)Howstupidofme!(37)Howcleverofme!,.,MaximofAgreement一致准则(inassertives)(i)Minimizedisagreementbetweenselfandother(ii)MaximizeagreementbetweenselfandotherRegulatedbythemaximofagreement,peopletendtoexaggeratetheircommongroundfirst,evenwhenmuchdifferenceistofollow:(38)A:Thebookisverywellwritten.B:Yes,wellwrittenasawhole,buttherearesomeratherboringpatches,dontyouthink?,.,Ifexpressingdisagreementisinevitable,thenspeakersattempttosoftenitinvariousways,byexpressingregretatthedisagreement.e.g.(39)Imsorry,butIcantagreewithyou.Inthisexample,theuseofthewordcantseemstoimplythatthespeakerwouldliketoagree.Speakersmayevenshowreluctancetospeakatallwhentheyknowtheywillbedisagreeingtheyuseexpressionssuchaswellatthebeginningoftheirutterancesorthey“humandhaw”.,.,MaximofSympathy同情准则(inassertives)(i)Minimizeantipathybetweenselfandother(ii)MaximizesympathybetweenselfandotherTheMaximofSympathyhassucharegulativeforcethatweinvariablyinterpret(40)asacongratu