李嘉玉作文书中的EXAMPLE.doc

思想家孔子(前551前479)孔子，名丘，字仲尼。鲁国陬邑(今山东曲阜东南)人。先世是宋国贵族，避难迁鲁。他出生时，家世已经没落。年轻时做过季孙氏的委吏(管仓库)和乘田(管繁殖牲口)等。三十多岁到齐国，几年没有得到齐君的重用，又回到鲁国，聚徒讲学。五十多岁时，由鲁国中都宰(都城行政长官)升任司寇(掌管刑狱、纠察等事)。后又曾周游宋、卫、蔡、齐、楚等国。晚年在鲁国编订古代文化典籍诗尚书春秋等，教授门徒。孔子的弟子曾将他的谈话和他与门徒的问答，辑成论语一书，这是研究孔子思想的主要资料。Confucius(circa 551-479 BC)One of the most famous people in ancient China was a wise philosopher named Confucius. He sometimes went by the names Kong Zi though he was born - Kong Qiu - styled Zhong Ni. He was born in the village of Zou in the country of Lu. This Chinese man was a well-known leader in philosophy and he also made many wise phrases and theories about the law, life, and the government. Confucius is famous for his philosophy because he made many wise sayings in ancient China that helped many people learn about nature, the world, and the human behavior. He also helped the government and the emperor by teaching them lessons on how the emperor should rule his kingdom successfully. Confucius was born in a poor family in the year 551 B.C., and he was born in the state of Lu. His original name was Kung Chiu. His father, commander of a district in Lu, died three years after Confucius was born, leaving the family in poverty; but Confucius nevertheless received a fine education. He was married at the age of 19 and had one son and two daughters. He worked as a keeper of a market. Then he was a farm worker who took care of parks and farm animals. When he was 20, he worked for the governor of his district.Key words: philosophy poor childhood ancient China亚里士多德（公元前384-322 ）元前384年，亚里士多德生于富拉基亚的斯塔基尔希腊移民区。他的父亲是马其顿国王腓力二世的宫廷侍医 ，所以他的家庭应该属于奴隶主阶级中的中产阶层。亚里士多德于公元前367年迁居到雅典，曾经学过医学，还在雅典柏拉图学院学习过很多年，是柏拉图学院的积极参加者。 从十八岁到三十八岁在亚里士多德雅典跟柏拉图学习哲学。这二十年对亚里士多德来说是个很重要的阶段，这一时期的学习和生活对他一生产生了决定性的影响。苏格拉底是柏拉图的老师，亚里士多德又受教于柏拉图，这三代师徒都是哲学史上赫赫有名的人物。 在雅典的柏拉图学园中，亚里士多德表现的很出色，柏拉图称他是“学园之灵”。但亚里士多德不是一个只崇拜权威，在学术上唯唯诺诺而没有自己的想法的人。他同大谈玄理的老师不同，他努力的收集各种图书资料，勤奋钻研，甚至为自己建立了一个图书室。在学院期间，亚里士多德就在思想上跟老师有了分歧。他曾经隐喻的说过，智慧不会随柏拉图一起死亡。当柏拉图到了晚年，他们师生间的分歧更大了，经常发生争吵。公元前347年，柏拉图去世后，亚里士多德在雅典又继续呆了两年，此后他开始游历各地。公元前343年，他受马其顿国王腓力二世的聘请，担任起太子亚历山大的老师。当时，亚历山大十三岁，亚里士多德四十二岁。 亚里士多德是世界古代史上最伟大的哲学家、科学家和教育家。他创立了形式逻辑学，丰富和发展了哲学的各个分支学科，对科学做出了巨大的贡献。 Aristotle Aristotle (384-322 bc), Greek philosopher and scientist, who shares with Plato and Socrates the distinction of being the most famous of ancient philosophers. He was born at Stagira, in Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court. At the age of 17, he went to Athens to study at Platos Academy. He remained there for about 20 years, as a student and then as a teacher.When Plato died in 347 bc, Aristotle moved to Assos, a city in Asia Minor, where a friend of his, Hermias, was ruler. There he counseled Hermias and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythias. After Hermias was captured and executed by the Persians in 345 bc, Aristotle went to Pella, the Macedonian capital, where he became the tutor of the kings young son Alexander, later known as Alexander the Great. In 335, when Alexander became king, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his own school, the Lyceum. Because much of the discussion in his school took place while teachers and students were walking about the Lyceum grounds, Aristotles school came to be known as the Peripatetic (“walking” or “strolling”) school. Upon the death of Alexander in 323 bc, strong anti-Macedonian feeling developed in Athens, and Aristotle retired to a family estate in Euboea (vvoia). He died there the following year.Perhaps because of the influence of his fathers medical profession, Aristotles philosophy laid its principal stress on biology, in contrast to Platos emphasis on mathematics. Aristotle regarded the world as made up of individuals (substances) occurring in fixed natural kinds (species). Each individual has its built-in specific pattern of development and grows toward proper self-realization as a specimen of its type. Growth, purpose, and direction are thus built into nature. Although science studies general kinds, according to Aristotle, these kinds find their existence in particular individuals. Science and philosophy must therefore balance, not simply choose between, the claims of empiricism (observation and sense experience) and formalism (rational deduction).One of the most distinctive of Aristotles philosophic contributions was a new notion of causality. Each thing or event, he thought, has more than one “reason” that helps to explain what, why, and where it is. Earlier Greek thinkers had tended to assume that only one sort of cause can be really explanatory; Aristotle proposed four. (The word Aristotle uses, aition,”a responsible, explanatory factor” is not synonymous with the word cause in its modern sense.)Key words: ancient Greek philosopher scientist柏拉图柏拉图（P1ato，公元前427前347年）出身于雅典一个名门贵族家庭，自幼受到良好的教育，20岁时师从苏格拉底研究哲学，苏格拉底死后，柏拉图曾离开雅典在外游历，12年后回到雅典，创立了阿加德米学园，在那里讲学直到逝世为止。“柏拉图是古典时代著作丰富而作品似乎完整齐全留传下来的唯一作家。”在他留给后人的36篇对话录中，理想国和法律篇较集中地反映了他的教育学说，围绕培养“哲学王”的教育问题，他构思了一个庞大的教育体系。柏拉图在物质世界以外寻求事物的本原，建立了以理念论为核心的客观唯心主义哲学体系。理念论的基本内容是将理性世界和感觉世界对立起来，认为感性的具体事物不是真实的存在，在感觉世界之外还有一个永恒不变的、独立的、真实存在的理念世界。PlatoPlato (428?-347 bc), Greek philosopher, one of the most creative and influential thinkers in Western philosophy. He was born to an aristocratic family in Athens. His father, Ariston, was believed to have descended from the early kings of Athens. Perictione, his mother, was distantly related to the 6th-century bc lawmaker Solon. When Plato was a child, his father died, and his mother married Pyrilampes, who was an associate of the statesman Pericles.As a young man Plato had political ambitions, but he became disillusioned by the political leadership in Athens. He eventually became a disciple of Socrates, accepting his basic philosophy and dialectical style of debate: the pursuit of truth through questions, answers, and additional questions. Plato witnessed the death of Socrates at the hands of the Athenian democracy in 399 bc. Perhaps fearing for his own safety, he left Athens temporarily and traveled to Italy, Sicily, and Egypt.In 387 Plato founded the Academy in Athens, the institution often described as the first European university. It provided a comprehensive curriculum, including such subjects as astronomy, biology, mathematics, political theory, and philosophy. Aristotle was the Academys most prominent student.Platos theory of Forms and his theory of knowledge are so interrelated that they must be discussed together. Influenced by Socrates, Plato was convinced that knowledge is attainable. He was also convinced of two essential characteristics of knowledge. First, knowledge must be certain and infallible. Second, knowledge must have as its object that which is genuinely real as contrasted with that which is an appearance only. Because that which is fully real must, for Plato, be fixed, permanent, and unchanging, he identified the real with the ideal realm of being as opposed to the physical world of becoming. One consequence of this view was Platos rejection of empiricism, the claim that knowledge is derived from sense experience. He thought that propositions derived from sense experience have, at most, a degree of probability. They are not certain. Furthermore, the objects of sense experience are changeable phenomena of the physical world. Hence, objects of sense experience are not proper objects of knowledge.Key words: Greek philosopher great tutor 苏格拉底苏格拉底（前469年前399年）是著名的古希腊哲学家。与他的学生之一是柏拉图及柏拉图的学生亚里士多德并称“希腊三贤”。 出生于伯里克利统治的雅典黄金时期，死于雅典的败落时期。（伯罗奔尼撒战争结束后的三十人僭主集团倒台后的时期)。出身贫寒，父亲是一名雕刻师，母亲为助产士。苏格拉底是一位个性鲜明，被人褒贬不一而充满传奇色彩的历史人物。 苏格拉底是柏拉图的老师，他一生未曾著述，其言论和思想多见于柏拉图和色诺芬的著作如苏格拉底言行回忆录。苏格拉底最后因触犯了当时权贵的利益而被冠以腐蚀青年思想之名被迫饮毒堇汁而死。 他长期靠教育为业，苏格拉底的教学方式独特，常常用启发、辩论的方式来进行教育。 苏格拉底是柏拉图哲学路线的创始者。苏格拉底重视伦理学，是古希腊第一个提出要用理性和思维去寻找普遍道德的人，他是道德哲学的创始人，他强调道德是由理性指导的，所以“美德就是知识”，认为善出于知，恶出于无知。 在欧洲哲学史上最早提出唯心主义的目的论，认为一切都是神所创造与安排的，体现了神的智慧与目的。提出了“自知自己无知”的命题，认为只有放弃对自然界的求索（因为那时神的领域），承认自己无知的人才是聪明人。最有知识的是神，知识最终从神而来，真正的知是服从神。 在逻辑学方面，亚里士多德认为苏格拉底提出归纳论证，从具体实事中找出确定的论点，并注意一般定义的方法，对概念做出精确的说明。苏格拉底的哲学思想主要认为是非有标准。传说苏格拉底的家庭生活不幸，其妻子是个泼妇。SocratesSocrates (469-399bc), Greek philosopher, profoundly affected Western philosophy through his influence on Plato. Born in Athens, the son of Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and Phaenarete, a midwife, he received the regular elementary education in literature, music, and gymnastics. Later he familiarized himself with the rhetoric and dialectics of the Sophists, the speculations of the Ionian philosophers, and the general culture of Periclean Athens. Initially, Socrates followed the craft of his father; according to a former tradition, he executed a statue group of the three Graces, which stood at the entrance to the Acropolis until the 2nd century ad. In the Peloponnesian War with Sparta he served as an infantryman with conspicuous bravery at the battles of Potidaea in 432-430 bc, Delium in 424 bc, and Amphipolis in 422 bc. Socrates believed in the superiority of argument over writing and therefore spent the greater part of his mature life in the marketplace and public places of Athens, engaging in dialogue and argument with anyone who would listen or who would submit to interrogation. Socrates was reportedly unattractive in appearance and short of stature but was also extremely hardy and self-controlled. He enjoyed life immensely and achieved social popularity because of his ready wit and a keen sense of humor that was completely devoid of satire or cynicism.Socrates contribution to philosophy was essentially ethical in character. Belief in a purely objective understanding of such concepts as justice, love, and virtue, and the self-knowledge that he inculcated, were the basis of his teachings. He believed that all vice is the result of ignorance, and that no person is willingly bad; correspondingly, virtue is knowledge, and those who know the right will act rightly. His logic placed particular emphasis on rational argument and the quest for general definitions, as evidenced in the writings of his younger contemporary and pupil, Plato, and of Platos pupil, Aristotle. Through the writings of these philosophers, Socrates profoundly affected the entire subsequent course of Western speculative thought.Key words: Greek philosopher 康德伊曼纽康德（17241804）被许多人认为是现代最伟大的哲学家。康德的生平听上去是对他这位象牙塔里的知识分子一生的戏称。他出生在普鲁士的柯尼希斯伯格，16岁的时候进入大学，在这里教书直到73岁，除了在这个城市40英里的范围内走动外，一生从未出过远门。他不到5英尺高，胸部凹陷，过着单身汉的生活，一生不变，据说这是为了保存他那脆弱的健康状况。每天早晨5点由男仆将他唤醒，花两个小时进行学习，还有两个小时讲课，写作到下午一点，然后再去一家餐馆进餐。下午3点半，他准时散步一个小时，不管天气如何。他在菩提树下的一条小路上散步，只用鼻子呼吸（他认为在户外张开嘴是不利于健康的），而且这时候不跟任何人说话。（他非常守时，邻居们都根据他每天散步的情况对表，有一天他没有准时来散步，邻居们都非常担心。这天他一直在读卢梭的爱弥儿，看得太入神了，以至于忘了自己。）一天余下的时间里，他会花在读书上面，并准备第二天的讲课。约在晚上9-10点间睡觉。康德的写作和讲课涉及广泛的范围：伦理学、神学、宇宙哲学、美学、逻辑学和知识理论。他在政治和神学上都属于自由主义者，他同情法国革命，直到恐怖统治为止，他相信民主，热爱自由。他是莱布尼兹的弟子，直到中年他读了休谟然后说，“从教条主义的沉睡中醒了过来”，并得到启发，发展了一套比莱布尼兹详细得多的知识理论。Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant (1724-1804), German philosopher, considered by many the most influential thinker of modern times. Born in Knigsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia), April 22, 1724, Kant received his education at the Collegium Fredericianum and the University of Knigsberg. At the college he studied chiefly the classics, and at the university he studied physics and mathematics. After his father died, he was compelled to halt his university career and earn his living as a private tutor. In 1755, aided by a friend, he resumed his studies and obtained his doctorate. Thereafter, for 15 years he taught at the university, lecturing first on science and mathematics, but gradually enlarging his field of concentration to cover almost all branches of philosophy.Although Kants lectures and works written during this period established his reputation as an original philosopher, he did not receive a chair at the university until 1770, when he was made professor of logic and metaphysics. For the next 27 years he continued to teach and attracted large numbers of students to Knigsberg. Kants unorthodox religious teachings, which were based on rationalism rather than revelation, brought him into conflict with the government of Prussia, and in 1792 he was forbidden by Frederick William II, king of Prussia, to teach or write on religious subjects. Kant obeyed this order for five years until the death of the king and then felt released from his obligation. In 1798, the year following his retirement from the university, he published a summary of his religious views. He died February 12, 1804.The keystone of Kants philosophy, sometimes called critical philosophy, is contained in his Critique of Pure Reason (1781), in which he examined the bases of human knowledge and created an individual epistemology. Like earlier philosophers, Kant differentiated modes of thinking into analytic and synthetic propositions. An analytic proposition is one in which the predicate is contained in the subject, as in the statement “Black houses are houses.” The truth of this type of proposition is evident, because to state the reverse would be to make the proposition self-contradictory. Such propositions are called analytic because truth is discovered by the analysis of the concept itself. Synthetic propositions, on the other hand, are those that cannot be arrived at by pure analysis, as in the statement “The house is black.” All the common propositions that result from experience of the world are synthetic.Key works: German philosopher great thinker弗兰西斯 培根弗兰西斯 培根（15611626），英国文艺复兴时期最重要的散作家、哲学家。他不但在文学、哲学上多有建树，在自然科学领域里，也取得了重大成就。培根是一位经历了诸多磨难的贵族子弟，复杂多变的生活经历丰富了他的阅历，随之而来的，使他的思想成熟，言论深邃，富含哲理。人们完全可以说弗朗西斯培根是一位真正的现代哲学家。他的整个世界观是现世的而不是宗教的（虽然他坚信上帝）。他是一位理性主义者而不是迷信的崇拜者，是一位经验论者而不是诡辩学者。在政治上，他是一位现实主义者而不是理论家。他那渊博的学识连同精彩的文笔与科学和技术相共鸣。Francis BaconFrancis Bacon (1561-1626), English philosopher and statesman, one of the pioneers of modern scientific thought. Bacon was educated at Trinity College, University of Cambridge. Elected to the House of Commons in 1584, he served until 1614. He wrote letters of sound advice to Elizabeth I, queen of England, but his suggestions were never implemented, and he completely lost favor with the queen in 1593, when he opposed a bill for a royal subsidy. He regained the respect of the court, however, with the accession of James I to the English throne in 1603. Bacon proposed schemes for the union of England and Scotland and recommended measures for dealing with Roman Catholics. For these efforts he was knighted on July 23, 1603, was made a commissioner for the union of Scotland and England, and was given a pension in 1604. His Advancement of Learning was published and presented to the king in 1605. Two years later he was appointed solicitor general.In the last session of the first Parliament held (February 1611) under James I, the differences between Crown and Commons grew critical, and Bacon took the role of mediator, despite his distrust of Jamess chief minister, Robert Cecil, 1st earl of Salisbury. On Salisburys death in 1612, Bacon, in order to gain the kings attention, wrote several papers on statecraft, particularly on relations between Crown and Commons. In 1613 he was appointed attorney general.In 1616 Bacon became a privy councillor, and in 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor and raised to the peerage as Baron Verulam. In 1620 his Novum Organum was published, and on January 26, 1621, he was created Viscount Saint Albans. In the same year he was charged by Parliament with accepting bribes. He confessed but said that he was “heartily and penitently sorry.” He submitted himself to the will of his fellow peers, who ordered him fined, imprisoned during the kings pleasure, and banished from Parliament and the court. After his release, he retired to his family residence at Gorhambury. In September 1621 the king pardoned him but prohibited his return to Parliament or the court. Bacon then resumed his writing, completing his History of Henry VII and his Latin translation of The Advancement of Learning (De Augmentis). In March 1622 he offered to make a digest of the laws, with no further consequence despite repeated petitions to James I and Jamess successor, Charles I. He died in London on April 9, 1626.Bacons philosophy emphasized the belief that people are the servants and interpreters of nature, that truth is not derived from authority, and that knowledge is the fruit of experience. Bacon is generally credited with having contributed to logic the method known as ampliative inference, a technique of inductive reasoning. Previous logicians had practiced induction by simple enumeration, that is, drawing general conclusions from particular data. Bacons method was to infer by use of analogy, from the characteristics or properties of the larger group to which that datum belonged, leaving to later experience the correction of evident errors. Because it added significantly to the improvement of scientific hypotheses, this method was a fundamental advancement of the scientific method.Bacons Novum Organum successfully influenced the acceptance of accurate observation and experimentation in science. In it he maintained that all prejudices and preconceived attitudes, which he called idols, must be abandoned, whether they be the common property of the race due to common modes of thought (“idols of the tribe”), or the peculiar possession of the individual (“idols of the cave”); whether they arise from too great a dependence on language (“idols of the marketplace”), or from tradition (“idols of the theater”). The principles laid down in the Novum Organum had an important influence on the subsequent development of empiricist thought.Key words: philosopher statesman 科学家孟德尔孟德尔（Groegor Mendel，1822-1884）出生于捷克摩拉维亚（当时属奥地利）的一个农民家庭，从小就在家里帮助父亲嫁接果树，在学习上已经表现出非凡的才能。1844-1848年，孟德尔在布隆大学哲学院学习神学，曾选修迪博尔（Diebl，1770-1859）讲授的农学、果树学和葡萄栽培学等课程。1848年在维也纳大学期间，孟德尔先后师从著名物理学家多普勒（CDoppler，1803-1853）、物理学家埃汀豪生（AEttinghausen）和植物生理学家翁格尔（FUnger，1800-1870），这三个人对他的科学思想无疑产生了很大影响。当时大多数科学家所惯用的方法是培根式的归纳法，