Sense relations 语义关系ppt课件

.,1,Lexicology,Lecture10Senserelations语义关系,.,2,Senserelations语义关系,Senserelationsaretherelationsheldbetweenwordswithinthevocabulary.synonymy同义关系antonymy反义关系hyponymy下义关系homonymy同形同音异义关系定义，分类，比较5.polysemy一词多义,.,3,Synonymy,SynonymyTypesofsynonymsSourcesofsynonymsDiscriminationofsynonyms,.,4,Synonymy,Synonymscanbedefinedaswordsdifferentinsoundandspellingbutmostnearlyalikeorexactlythesameinmeaning.-张维友picture,photo,snapshot,.,5,Synonymy,Synonymyisatermusedinsemanticstorefertoamajortypeofsenserelationbetweenlexicalitems:lexicalitemswhichhavethesamemeaningbutdifferinmorphemicstructure,phonologicalformandusagearesynonyms,andtherelationshipbetweenthemisoneofsynonymy.,.,6,typesofsynonymy,total/absolute/perfectsynonymspartialsynonyms（部分同义词）,.,7,Synonyms,total/absolute/perfectsynonyms:(完全同义词)arewordswhichareidenticalinmeaninginallitsaspects,i.e.bothingrammaticalmeaningandlexicalmeaninginclude.highlyspecializedvocabularye.g.,Scarlet-fever-scarlatinainmedicinemalnutritionandundernourishmentWordbuilding-wordformationComposition-compounding,.,8,Synonymy,partialsynonyms（部分同义词）/relative相对refertoitemswhicharecloseenoughintheirmeaningtoallowachoicetobemadebetweentheminsomecontextswithoutaffectingthemeaningofthesentenceasawhole.(theimportanceof“context”)Lu(p335),.,9,Synonymy,partialsynonyms（部分同义词）examples:able,capable,nearly,almostannounce,declaremoreexamples:phrasesandidiomsFinallyatlengthImmediatelyatonceDepressletdownRequirecallfor,.,10,Synonymy,moreexamples:phrasesandidiomsoverheadandearsinuptotheneckininathousandandonewaysbyhookorbycrooktodie,topassaway,tokickthebucket,死(中性)，逝世(褒义)，蹬腿了(俚语),.,11,1.sourcesofsynonymy,BorrowingWordsofnativeoriginformmanycoupletsandtripletswiththosefromotherlanguages,e.g.Nativeforeignroomchamberfoeenemybegincommencebuypurchasebodilycorporalheavensky,.,12,1.sourcesofsynonymy,BorrowingWordsofnativeoriginformmanycoupletsandtripletswiththosefromotherlanguages,e.g.NativeFrenchLatinaskquestioninterrogaterisemountascendfastfirmsecurefireflameconflagrationfearterrortrepidationtimeageepoch.,Features:nativewords:colloquial,intimateFrenchwords:formalLatinorGreekwords:moreformal,frozen,.,13,1.sourcesofsynonymy,DialectsandregionalEnglishAmEBrtEhelpservantsidewalkpavementrailroadrailwayelevatorliftdruggistchemistgasolinepetrolinstallmentplanhire-purchasesystem,佣人人行道铁路电梯药品商汽油分期付款,.,14,1.sourcesofsynonymy,figurativeandeuphemisticuseofwordse.g.Drunk-elevated(euph),lie-distortthefact(euph)coincidencewithidomaticexpressionse.g.wingaintheupperhandhesitate-beintwomindshelplendoneahand,.,15,Discriminationofsynonyms,Generallyspeaking,thereisnodifferencebetweenabsolutesynonymswhereasrelativesynonymsalwaysdifferinonewayoranother.differenceinrangeandintensityofmeaningdifferenceinstylisticfeaturesdifferenceinemotivecolouringdifferenceinapplication,.,16,Discriminationofsynonyms,differenceinrangeandintensityofmeaningIdidnotcomprehendhisexpositionorhisarguments,althoughIunderstoodthelanguage,andthegrammaticalimportofeachsentence.Understandisusedinamuchmoreextendedsensethancomprehend.workvs.toil,.,17,Discriminationofsynonyms,2.DifferenceinstylisticfeaturesPoliceman,constable,bobby,copPoliceman(Brt.hit-miss,.,28,Featuresofcomplementaries互补反义词的特点,Theyaresoopposedtoeachotherthattheyaremutuallyexclusiveandadmitnopossibilitybetweenthem.Theassertionofoneisthedenialoftheotherorviceversa.Anotherdistinctivefeatureofthiscategoryisthatsuchantonymsarenongradable.-张维友,.,29,(2)Contraries相对反义词,gradableantonymsContrariesarebestenvisagedintermsofascalerunningbetweentwopolesorextremes.old,middle-aged,younghot,_,coldbeautiful,_,ugly,Verybig/big/quite/big/medium-sized/quitesmall/small/tiny,warm,cool,good-looking,plain,.,30,Suchwordsalsoshowthefeatureofgradability,thatis,superlativedegreeorcomparativedegree,evensomeadverbscanbeaddedintothetwopolestoindicatethewordsaregradable.eg.Younger,youngest,veryyoung,relativelyyoung,(2)Contraries相对反义词,.,31,Antonymsofthiskindarecharacteristicofsemanticpolarity.Theseantonymsformpartofascaleofvaluesbetweentwopolesandcanaccommodateamiddlegroundbelongingneithertoonepolenortotheother.这种反义词的特点是语义二极性。这些反义词形成了处于两极之间的一支等值尺，并可以提供不属于两端的中间地带。,(2)Contraries相对反义词,.,32,(3)Converses关系反义词,Conversesconsistofrelationaloppositessuchasparentchild,husbandwife,predecessorsuccessor,employeremployee.Thepairsofwordsindicatesuchareciprocalsocialrelationshipthatoneofthemcannotbeusedwithoutsuggestingtheother.a.Nouns:husband-wife;student-teacher;doctor-patient;b.Verbs:buy-sell;teach-learn;give-take;rent-let;save-waste;win-losec.Prepositions:above-below;infrontof-behind;,.,33,Note,天地heavenandearth夫妻manandwife因果causeandeffect来去comeandgo远近farandnear黑白blackandwhite厚薄thickandthin,.,34,Note,fireandwaterheatandcoldeatanddrinkrightandleftrichandpooroldandnewheavyandlightsoonerorlater,水火寒暑饮食左右贫富新旧轻重迟早,.,35,TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用,(1)Antonymhavevariouspracticalusesandhavelongprovedhelpfulandvaluableindefiningthemeaningsofagivenword.反义词有各种实际用途，在解释词义方面早就被证明很有用处、很有价值。freshbread,freshair,freshflowers,freshlookstalebread,stuffyair,fadedflowers,tiredlook,.,36,TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用,(2)Antonymsareusefulinenablingustoexpresseconomicallytheoppositeofaparticularthought,oftenforthesakeofcontrast.反义词能使我们简洁地表达一特定思想的反面，常常是为了形成对比。,hereandthere,friendorfoe,firstandlast总的来说rainorshine,无论如何thickandthin赴汤蹈火highandlow到处，各地giveandtake互相迁就，忍让,.,37,TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用,(3)Antonymsareoftenusedtoformantithesistoachieveemphasisbyputtingcontrastingideastogether.反义词常用来构成对偶句，以便将对立的思想放在一起取得强调的效果Artislong,lifeisshort.Easycome，easygo.Morehate,lessspeed.Unitedwestand,dividedwefall.Hopeforthebestandpreparefortheworst.,.,38,TheUseofAntonyms反义词的使用,(4)Manygreatwritersarefondofusingantonymstoservetheirstylisticpurpose.许多大作家喜欢利用反义词以达到其风格上的目标。Itwasthebestoftimes,itwastheworstoftimes,itwastheageofwisdom,itwastheageoffoolishness,itwastheepochofbelief,itwastheageofincredulity,itwastheseasonoflight,itwastheepochofdarkness,itwasthespringofhope,itwasthewinterofdespairs,wehaveeverythinginbeforeus,wehadnothingbeforeus,wewereallgoingdirecttoHeaven,wewereallgoingdirecttootherways-ATaleofTwoStories,.,39,Homonymy同形同音异义关系,Homonyms?OriginofhomonymsTypesofhomonyms,.,40,Homonymy同形同音异义关系,Homonymsaregenerallydefinedaswordsdifferentinmeaningbuteitheridenticalbothinsoundandspellingoridenticalonlyinsoundorspelling.同形同音异义词是意义不同、而发音与拼写皆相同或只有拼写或只有发音相同的词。,.,41,Originsofhomonyms,见课本Splitofpolysemy多义词的词义分化Quean/queen,flour-古法语flor花，拉丁语flos“麦子的最精细部分”、flowerConvergingsounddevelopment音变的汇合/外来词的介入I/eye,bear/bear,race/raceShortening词语缩略的结果Popular/pop,rockandroll/rockBernardShaw:ghoti,.,42,Typesofhomonyms,Perfect/absolutehomonyms完全同形同音异义词Homophones同音异义词Homographs同形异义词,thelargestnumberandmostcommon,.,43,(1)Perfecthomonyms,Perfecthomonymsalsoknownasabsolutehomonymsarewordsidenticalbothinsoundandspellingbank,bear,datebankntheedgeoftheriver,lake,etcbankn.anestablishmentformoneybusinessbearnalargeheavyanimalbearvtoputupwithdatenakindoffruitdatenaboyorgirlfriend,.,44,(2)Homographs同形异义词,tear,sow.minute,lead,bow,wind重音转换：produce,refuse,desert,object,.,45,(3)Homophones同音异义词,sew/sow,dear/deer,meet/meat/mete边界，awe/oar/or/ore,cent/scent/sent,right/write/rite/wright，pair/pear/pare,to/two/too,tale/tail,.,46,Rhetoricfeaturesofhomonyms,Homonymsareoftenemployedtocreatepunsfordesiredeffectofhumororironyforstylisticpurposes.Example1:-Yourenoteatingyourfish,thewaitresssaidtohim.anythingwrongwithit?-longtimenosea,themanreplied.,.,47,Polysemy一词多义关系,PolysemyTwoapproachestopolysemyprocessesofdevelopment,.,48,Polysemy一词多义关系,Polysemymeansthatonesinglewordhastwoormoresensesatthesametime.它是指一个单独的词同时有两个或更多的意义。ThebulkofEnglishwordsarepolysemic;onemeaningwordsarerareandaremainlyscientifictermssuchashydrogen,molecule,andsoon.,.,49,1.Twoapproachestopolysemy,Diachronicapproach历时研究方法Itisassumedtobetheresultofgrowthanddevelopmentofthesemanticstructureofoneandsameword.一词多义是同一个词的语义结构历史发展的结果。Thefirstmeaningistheprimarymeaning原始意义.Latermeaningsarecalledderivativemeanings派生意义.P89,.,50,Synchronicapproach共时研究方法Synchronically,polysemyisviewedasthecoexistenceofvariousmeaningsofthesamewordinahistoricalperiodoftime.从共时的角度看，在同一个历史时期，同一个词可以拥有许多不同的意义。Thebasicmeaningofawordiscalledthecentralmeaning中心意义.Thederivativemeaningsaresecondaryincomparison.,1.Twoapproachestopolysemy,.,51,2.processesofdevelopment,1)Radiation辐射型2)Concatenation连锁型3)thecombinationofthetwo,.,52,1)Radiation辐射型,Semantically,radiationistheprocesswhichtheprimaryorcentralmeaningstandsatthecenterwhilesecondarymeaningsradiatefromitineverydirectionlikerays.从语义上讲，辐射型是这样一种过程，在此过程中，本义（也称中心意义）处在中心位置，次要意义从此处象光线一样朝各个方向辐射。,.,53,1)Radiation辐射型,HeadP90（见课本）Allthemeaningsareindependentofoneanother,butcanallbetracedbacktothecentralmeaning.这些次要词义之间相互独立，但均可追溯到中心义。,.,54,2)Concatenation连锁型,Concatenationisasemanticprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovesgraduallyawayfromitsfirstsensebysuccessiveshiftsuntilthereisnoconnectionbetweenthesensethatisfinallydevelopedandtheprimarymeaning.连锁型是一种语义过程，在此过程中，一个词的意义象链条一样，通过连续的改变，逐渐从本义移开，直至最后发展出来的意义和本义没有了任何关系。,.,55,例1：board：木板餐桌会议桌董事会例2：candidate：穿白袍的人身着白袍申请职位的人候选人,.,56,3)radiation+concatenation,BEACFGD,.,57,radiation+concatenation,综合性：词义的变化是很复杂的，并不都按单一的方式进行。在通常的情况下，词义的演变是两种方式交叉结合进行的。由只有一个原始意义的单义词通过多种词义演变过程发展为多义词的过程叫做词义的“繁衍”（proliferation）,.,58,example,face:在古英语里的意思是“脸”。在放射型的演变过程中，通过词义的扩大获得了“人的外表、外观、态度”等意思；通过词义的缩小获得了“表情”的意思；通过隐喻使词义转变为“尊严”。在连锁型的演变过程中，由“人的外表”转移为“任何东西的外表、表面”。多义词的词义就是这样一步步地繁衍出来的。,.,59,radiation+concatenation,oneswholeattitude,face,anexpressionontheface,reputation,oneswholeappearance,thesurfaceofanything,.,60,.,61,Hyponymy,.,62,Hyponymy,Fromtheabovediagram,wecanseethewordfoodisageneralterm,linguisticallycalledasuperordinateterm,i.e.,itincludesalltheothertermslistedunderneathit.Meat,vegetable,andfruitarespecifictermsandtheyareallhyponyms/subordinatetermsoffood.Therelationshipbetweenspecificwordsandgeneralwordsarecalledhyponymy.,human,baby,.,63,Hyponymy,container,.,64,Thesenserelationofhyponymyisveryhelpfulinbothreceptiveandproductiveprocessingoflanguage.Inreadingcomprehension,cohesionbyhyponymyisanimportantkey.e.g.Therewasafinerocking-chairthathisfatherusedtositin,adeskwherehewroteletters,anestofsmalltablesanddark,imposingbookcase,nowallthisfurniturewastobesold,andwithithisownpast,.,65,notes,Hand是由palm，finger，knuckle三部分组成。他们之间是整体与部分的关系而非上下义关系。又如plant由root，stem,leaf,flower,bud,shoot组成。,.,66,Lexicology,Lecture11semanticchangechangesofmeaning,.,67,Changesinwordmeaning,CausesofchangeMechanism/processofchangeTypesofchange,.,68,Typesofsemanticchange,extension（词义的扩大）/generalization(词义的一般化)narrowing（词义的缩小）/specialization（词义的特殊化）/elevation(词义的升格)degeneration/degradation(词义的降格)transferenceofmeaning(词义的转移),.,69,1.generalization/extension,Extensionofmeaningisthenamegiventothewideningofmeaning,whichsomewordsundergo.Itisaprocessbywhichawordwhichoriginallyhadaspecializedmeaninghasnowbecomegeneralizedorhasextendedtocoverabroaderandlessdefiniteconcept.,.,70,Examples,lady:“thefemalehostinahouse”“afemalearistocrat”“womenwhoareeducated”“apolitewaytorefertoanykindofwoman”“thesynonymtowoman”女主人贵族太太有教养的女主人任何女人saleslady,cleaninglady,ladiesroom,aladynovelist,ladytrafficwardens,ladyguests,.,71,1.generalization/extension,Fromspecifictogeneral从特指到类指Fromconcretetoabstract从具体到抽象Fromtechnicaltermstogeneralwords从术语到一般词汇Frompropernounstocommonnouns从专有名词到普通名词,.,72,Examples,Fromspecifictogeneral从特指到类指,bird（幼鸟-鸟）journal（日报-一切期刊）Fromconcretetoabstract从具体到抽象grasp用手抓住-掌握，领会pain罚款-惩罚-痛苦,.,73,Examples,Fromtechnicaltermstogeneralwords从术语到一般词汇,catalyst化学术语催化剂促进因素，导火索allergic对过敏对有一种说不出的厌恶Frompropernounstocommonnouns从专有名词到普通名词SandwichBoycott;Champagne;P72,.,74,汉语中的例子,又如：“得更求好女”（西门豹治邺）“好”，原来专指女子相貌好看，不涉及品德，现代汉语中“好”可泛指一切美好的性质，对人、事、物都可以修饰限制。,.,75,2.specialization/narrowing,narrowingisaprocessbywhichawordofwidemeaningacquiresanarrowerorspecializedsense.,.,76,2.specialization/narrowing,Fromgeneraltospecific从类指到特指Fromabstracttoconcrete从抽象到具体Fromgeneralwordstotechnicalterms从一般词汇到术语Fromcommonnounstopropernouns从普通名词到专有名词,.,77,fromgeneraltospecific从泛指到特指meat(各种食物,eg.sweetmeat甜食,greenmeat蔬菜,tobemeatanddrinktosomebodyfleshmeat肉食)Fromabstracttoconcrete从抽象到具体room（空间，地方具体的有限空间，房间）eg.Thereisstillroomforimprovement.Givemesomeroom.,Examples:,.,78,从普通名词到专有名词cape（海角）-theCape（theCapeofGoodHope）mesomeroom.从一般词语到术语memory记忆-存储器,Moreexamples:,.,79,.,80,3.elevation,elevationreferstotheprocessbywhichwordsrisefromhumblebeginningtopositionsofimportance.,.,81,Moreexamples中性褒义,queen女人女王marshal喂马的人最高指挥官constable马夫警察，警官lordloafgiver贵族ambassador信使大使,.,82,Moreexamples贬义褒义,shrewd凶狠的，邪恶的精明的，机灵的smart凶恶的eg.smartblow,smartfrost机灵的，巧妙地，漂亮的,狠狠一击，严霜,.,83,4.degeneration/degradation,degradationistheoppositeofsemanticelevation.Itisaprocessbywhichwordsofgoodoriginfallintoillreputationornon-affectivewordsandfinallytheycometobeusedinaderogatorysense.,.,84,Examples,sillyhappy,fortunate,holyinnocent,harmlessfoolishSilly幸福的神圣的-天真地，无害的-愚蠢的sadsatisfied,contendedcalmseriousgloomysorrowfulSad满足的镇静的-严肃的忧郁的悲伤的,.,85,汉语中的例子,“先帝不以臣卑鄙”（诸葛亮出师表）“卑”是指地位低下，“鄙”是指见识浅陋，并没有贬义；现在的“卑鄙”则指品质恶劣，变为贬义词。“谤讥于市朝”（战国策齐策一）“谤”古义为议论、批评他人过失，是中性词，现在是“恶意中伤”的意思，是贬义词。,在众人聚集的公共场所指责议论我的缺点,.,86,词义的转移,不论词义范围的变化还是词义褒贬的变化，词所指事物的类别都没有发生变化。但是，词从“字面意义”转移到“比喻意义”，所指事物类别完全不同了，词义发生了转移。,.,87,transferenceofmeaningreferstotheprocessofmeaningchangeinwhichtheliteralmeaning（字面意义）ofawordistransferredtothefigurativemeaning（比喻意义）.Threemajorways:1.Metaphor2.Metonymy3.Synecdoche,transferenceofmeaning,.,88,Metaphor,Metaphorisafigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparison,inwhichawordorphraseordinarilyandprimarilyusedofonethingisappliedtoanother.,.,89,Examples,humanbodies:thehead:theheadofacanetheheadofanarrowtheheadofabedtheface:thefaceofacliffthefaceofawatchthefaceofabuildingthefaceoftheearth,.,90,Examples,themouth:themouthofariverthemouthofapocketthemouthofabottlethemouthofatunnelthelip:thelipofabowlthelipofacraterthetongue:thetongueofashoethetongueoffiretheeyethenose,.,91,Examples,animals:harelipsthecrestofahillwingchairplants:therootofahairthestemofawordafamilytree,唇裂山顶高背椅,发根词干,.,92,Examples,otherobjects:thebridgeofthenosetheroofofthemouththearchofthefooteye-ballknee-capshoulderblade,.,93,Examples,useanimalstorefertohumanbeings:foxwolfassbearYouluckydog!bee,狡猾的人凶残的人，色鬼蠢人粗笨的人,.,94,汉语里的例子,地头蛇雌老虎走狗狐群狗党狐朋狗友鸡冠花（cockscomb），吊钟花（bluebell）,.,95,Metonymy（借代）,Metonymyisthedeviceinwhichwenamesomethingbyoneofitsattributesmeanstousingoneentitytorefertoanotherthatisrelatedtoiteg.Thekettleisboiling.Hetooktothebottle.,.,96,transferredepithet移就,asorrystateofaffairs可悲的事态adoubtfulquestion难料的问题thewhippedsoul被鞭笞的灵魂,.,97,synaesthesia通感,sharppepperasharpsmellsharpwordssharpeyessharpwind,味觉：辛辣的辣椒嗅觉：刺鼻的气味听觉：刺耳的话语视觉：锐利的眼光触觉：刺骨的寒风,.,98,Synecdoche,Synecdochemeansusingapartforawhole,anindividualforaclass,amaterialforathingorthereverseofanyofthese,.,99,Examples,Youngpeopleshouldhavemorerespectforgreyhairs.Hesawsomenewfacesintheclassroom.toearnonesbreadtocountheadsManyhandsprovidegreatstrength.Heisapoorcreature.,.,100,Causesofchange,1.Linguisticfactors语言因素(1)borrowing(2)shortening(3)analogy2.Extra-linguisticfactors非语言因素(1)historicalreason(2)classreason(3)psychologicalreason(4)socialvaluereason,aboutthesociety,abouthumanbeings,.,101,Linguisticfactors:borrowing,Thechangeofmeaningmaybecausedbyinternalfactorwithinthelanguagesystem.1.borrowingeg.deer(Formerlyitmeant“animal”,andlater“animal”fromLatinand“beast”fromFrenchfoundtheirwayintoEnglish.Intheinterestsofeconomy“deer”wasspecializedtomeanoneparticularspeciesof“animal”ratherthan“animal”ingeneral.),.,102,Moreexamples,“pig,cow,sheep”originallyreferredtoboththeanimalandtheirmeat.Butwiththecomingof“pork,beef,mutton”,theyonlyrefertotheanimalsnow.rear(Anglo-Saxon),raise(Scandinavian)clean(Anglo-Saxon),pure(French)hearty,cordial(Latin),cardiac心脏的(Greek),.,103,Linguisticfactors:shortening,2.shorteningForeconomy,somephrasesareshortenedandonlyoneelementoftheoriginal,usuallyanadjective,islefttoretainthemeaningofthewhole.Forexample,English=goodmorning=Godgiveyouagoodmorning,theEnglishlanguagetheEnglishpeople,.,104,Moreexamples,aprivate=aprivatesoldierageneral=ageneralofficeraneditorial=aneditorialarticleasaloon=asalooncargas=coalgas,adj.+n.;n.+n.,.,105,Linguisticfactors:analogy,3.analogywhenthemeaningoftheoriginalwordchanges,itwillbringthechangeofthemeaningofderivedwords.Forexample,“diplomatic”Originally,itmeans“pertainingtointernationalnegotiations”.Laterithasthesecondmeaning“skilledinthemanagementofnegotiationsofanykind”.diplomacy？(外交，外交手腕，圆滑),.,106,Causesofchange,1.Linguisticfactors语言因素(1)borrowing(2)shortening(3)analogy2.Extra-linguisticfactors非语言因素(1)historicalreason(2)classreason(3)psychologicalreason(4)socialvaluereason,aboutthesociety,abouthumanbeings,.,107,Extra-linguisticfactors,1.HistoricalreasonForexample,“pen”“straw”“manuscript”,.,108,Extra-linguisticfactors,2.classreasonPeoplefromdifferentsocialclasseshavedifferentattitudestowardswordmeaning.Forexample,“villain”（originallymeant“villager”）“clown”(originallymeant“farmer”),.,109,Notes:ethical,racial,sexualfactors,totakeFrenchleaveItalianhandSpanishathleteIrishbulldoubleDutchtogetonesDutchuptogoDutchtotalkDutchImaDutchmanifAnAmericanwillgotohellforabagofcoffee.,.,110,Notes:ethical,racial,sexualfactors,几乎所有指称女性的词都受到了降格eg.lady,girl,mistress,homely,spinster许多表示女性的词需另加上标记eg.poet-poetess,hero-heroine,president-femalepresident近年来，越来越多人使用没有性别差异的词frommantopersoneg.chairperson,draftsperson,businessperson,