LanguageandCognition语言与认知

LanguageandCognition,ByWuAmin,1,1WhatisCognition?2WhatisPsycholinguistics?2.1LanguageAcquisition2.2LanguageComprehension2.3LanguageProduction3WhatisCognitiveLinguistics?3.1ConstrualandConstrualOperations3.2Categorization3.3ImageSchemas3.4Metaphor3.5Metonymy3.6BlendingTheory,Outline,2,Inpsychology,COGNITIONisusedtorefertothementalprocessesofanindividual,withparticularrelationtoaviewthatarguesthatthemindhasinternalstatesandcanbeunderstoodintermsofinformationprocessing.Anotherloosedefinitionof“Cognition”isthementalprocessorfacultyofknowing,includingawareness,perception,reasoning,andjudgment.,TheDefinitionofCognition,3,Theformalapproachbasicallyaddressesstructuralpatterns,includingthestudyofmorphological,syntactic,andlexicalstructure.Thepsychologicalapproachlooksatlanguagefromtheviewofgeneralsystemsrangingfromperception,memory,attention,andreasoning.Theconceptualapproachisconcernedwiththepatternsinwhichandtheprocessesbywhichconceptualcontentisorganizedinlanguages.,LanguageandCognition,4,Thestudyofpsychologicalaspectsoflanguage.Itusuallystudiespsychologicalstatesandmentalactivityassociatedwiththeuseoflanguage.Animportantfocusofpsycholinguisticsisthelargelyunconsciousapplicationofgrammaticalrulesthatenablepeopletoproduceandcomprehendintelligiblesentences.Psycholinguisticsinvestigatetherelationshipbetweenlanguageandthought.,2WhatisPsycholinguistics,5,Asaninterdisciplinarystudyoflanguageandpsychology,psycholinguisticshasitsrootsinstructurallinguisticsontheonehand,andincognitivepsychologyontheotherhand.Itisalsocloselyrelatedtoasetofotherdisciplinessuchasanthropology,ortheneurosciences.,Relatedfields,6,Sixsubjectsofresearch,Languageacquisition(L1/L2)LanguagecomprehensionLanguageproductionLanguagedisordersLanguageandThoughtNeurocognition,7,Holophrasticstage（单词句阶段）：Shortlybeforetheirfirstbirthdayandlastingfromtwomonthstoayear.LanguagessoundpatternsSensitivitytophoneticdistinctionsinparentslanguage.One-wordstage:objects,actions,motions,routines.,2.1LanguageAcquisition,8,Two-wordstage:around18m,9,10,Three-word-utterancestageGivedoggiepaper.Puttruckwindow.Tractorgofloor.,11,Fluentgrammaticalconversationstage,Embedoneconstituentinsideanother:Bigdoggie.Givedoggiepaper.Givebigdoggiepaper.Usemorefunctionwords:missingfunctionwordsandinflection(90%)inthebeginningbutgoodusebytheageof3,withafullrangeofsentencetypes.Allpartsofalllanguageareacquiredbeforethechildturnsfour.,12,2.2LanguageComprehension,13,Languagecomprehensionisaprocessforustogetfamiliarwiththerealworld.Fromapsycholinguisticpointofview,westoreagreatdealofinformationaboutthepropertiesofwordsinourmentallexicon,andretrievethisinformationwhenweunderstandlanguage.Wecaninstinctivelyconnecttheknownitemsstoredinourmindtotheunknownonesandaccesstomoreinformationinprocessingandcomprehendinglanguage.,Wordrecognition,14,Wordrecognitioncanbeviewedintermsofrecognitionofspokenwordsandprintedones.Oneoflanguageusersimportanttasksistorecognizethespokenwords.Itisconcernedwithlistenersknowledgeoflanguageanditspatternswhichcanfacilitateperceptioninsomeways.Anotherquestionisabouttheirregularwritingsystemwhichalsoaffectsthelanguagecomprehension.,Comprehensionofsentences,15,Importantaswordrecognitionis,understandinglanguagerequiresfarmorethanaddingthemeaningoftheindividualwordstogether.Wemustcombinethemeaningsinwaysthathonorthegrammarofthelanguageandthataresensitivetothepossibilitythatlanguageisbeingusedinametaphoricornonliteralmanner.Twofactorsstandinthewayofsentencecomprehension:structuralfactorsandlexicalfactors.,16,Comprehensionoftext,Textisthenetofpropositionsthatmakeupthesemanticinterpretationsofindividualsentences.Readersabstractthemainthreadsofadiscourseandinfermissingconnections,constrainedbylimitationsofshort-termmemoryandguidedbyhowargumentsoverlapacrosspropositionandbylinguisticcuessignaledbythetext.,2.3LanguageProduction,17,Similartothelanguagecomprehension,languageproductionhasthefollowingthreestages:,Accesstowords,Wordsgenerationisplannedinseveralprocessingsteps.Eachstepgeneratesaspecifictypeofrepresentation,andinformationistransmittedbetweenrepresentationsviathespreadingofactivation.Itwillgothroughconceptualization,word-selectioncorrespondingtotheconcept-chosenandmorpho-phonologicalencoding.,Thefirststepisagainconceptualpreparationdecidingwhattosay.Itneedsaglobalplanforconceptualpreparationwithsomeintermediatestages,untilarepresentationallevelisreachedthatconsistsoflexicalconcepts.,18,Generationofsentences,Writtenlanguageproduction,Onceasyntacticlexiconunitanditsmorphologicalrepresentationhavebeenaccessed,itistheorthographicformratherthanthephonologicalformthatmustberetrievedandproduced.,3WhatisCognitiveLinguistics?,19,Cognitivelinguisticsisbasedonhumanexperiencesoftheworldandthewaytheyperceiveandconceptualizetheworld.,20,3.1ConstrualandConstrualOperations,Construalistheabilitytoconceiveandportraythesamesituationinalternatewaysthroughspecificity,differentmentalscanning,directionality,vantagepoint,figure-groundsegregation,etc.(Langacker2000:25)Construaloperationsareconceptualizingprocessesusedinlanguageprocessbyhumanbeings.,Attention/Salience(注意力/突显）Theoperationgroupedundersaliencehavetodowithourdirectionofattentiontowardssomethingthatissalienttous.Ex:a.Hecleanedthewindow.b.Heopenedthewindow.Exampleadrawsattentiontotheglassinthewindow,whereastheframeofthewindowismoresalientinex.b.,21,Itmainlyconcernswiththefollowingthreeoperations:,Judgment/Comparison（判断/对比）Theconstrualoperationsofjudgment/comparisonhavetodowithjudgingsomethingbycomparingittosomethingelse.Thisisaveryfundamentalcognitivecapacityandcognitiveoperationsofjudgmentareveryfundamentaltothehumanexperience.Ex:a.Thereisacatfigureonthematground.(movingobjectVSprepositionalobject)b.HetrajectorsgoingtoLondonlandmark.(movingfigureVSthegroundofamovingfigure),22,Perspective/Situatedness（视点/观察者位置）Anotherconstrualoperationincognitivelinguisticsisregardedtobeperspective,inwhichweviewasceneintermsofoursituatedness.Perspectivegenerallydependsontwothings.First,itdependsonwherewearesituatedinrelationtothescenewereviewing.Second,itdependsonhowthesceneisarrangedinrelationtooursituatedness.Ex:a.Mybikeisinfrontofthecar.b.Mybikeisbehindthecar.Ofcourse,theseconstrualspresupposethatweareactuallyphysicallypresentlookingatthecarandthebikefromdifferentperspectives.,23,24,3.2Categorization,Thementalprocessofclassificationiscategorization.Theresultofcategorizationiscategory.,Basiclevel:Thecategoriesatthebasiclevelarethosethataremostculturallysalientandarerequiredtofulfillourcognitiveneedsthebest.Superordinatelevel:themostgeneralones.Themembersofasuperordinatecategorydonothaveenoughfeaturesincommontoconjureupacommongestaltatthislevel.Subordinatelevel:Theyhaveclearlyidentifiablegestaltsandlotsofindividualspecificfeatures,Atthislevel,weperceivethedifferencesbetweenthemembersofthebasiccategories.,25,26,3.3ImageSchemas,Imageschemeexistatalevelofabstraction,operateatalevelofmentalorganizationbetweenpropositionalstructuresandconcreteimage,anditcanbesubdividedintothefollowingitems:acenter-peripheryschema,acontainmentschema,acycleschema,aforceschema,alinkschema,apart-wholeschema,apathschema,ascaleschemaandaverticalityschema.,Arecurring,dynamicpatternofourperceptualinteractionsandmotorprogramsthatgivescoherenceandstructuretoourexperience.(MarkJohnson,1987:xiv),Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalcoreandedgedegreesofdistancefromthecore.Examples:ThestructureofanappleAnindividualsperceptualsphereAnindividualssocialsphere,withfamilyandfriendsatthecoreandothershavingdegreesofperipherality,Center-peripheryschema（中心-边缘图式,27,Containmentschema（容器图式）,Involvesaphysicalormetaphoricalboundary，enclosedareaorvolume,orexcludedareaorvolume.,28,Bodilyexperience:humanbodiesascontainers.Structuralelements:interior,boundary,exteriorBasiclogic:ForallA,X,eitherIN(X,A)ornot.ForallA,B,X,ifCONTAINER(A)andCONTAINER(B)areIN(A,B)andIN(X,A),thenIN(X,B).Examples:Theshipiscomingintoview.Shesdeepinthought.Westoodinsilence.,29,Cycleschema（循环模式）,Involvesrepetitiouseventsandeventseries.Itsstructureincludesthefollowing:AstartingpointAprogressionthroughsuccessiveeventswithoutbacktrackingAreturntotheinitialstateTheschemaoftenhassuperimposedonitastructurethatbuildstowardaclimaxandthengoesthroughareleaseordecline.,30,31,Examples:DaysWeeksYearsSleepingandwakingBreathingCirculationEmotionalbuild-upandrelease,End-of-pathschema轨迹结束图式,AnimageschemainwhichalocationisunderstoodastheterminationofaprescribedpathExample:Inthefollowingsentence,itisunderstoodthatonemusttraversethehillbeforereachingSamshome,whichisattheendofthepath:Samlivesoverthehill.,32,Forceschema（力图式）,Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalcausalinteraction.Itincludesthefollowingelements:AsourceandtargetoftheforceAdirectionandintensityoftheforceApathofmotionofthesourceand/ortargetAsequenceofcausation,33,Examples:GravityInteractionCompulsionBlockageCounterforceDiversionRemovalofrestraint,34,Linkschema（连接图示）,Consistsoftwoormoreentities,connectedphysicallyormetaphorically,andthebondbetweenthem.EntityAEntityB,35,Example:AchildholdinghermothershandSomeonepluggingalampintothewallAcausal“connection”Kinship“ties”,36,Part-wholeschema（部分-整体图式）,Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalwholesalongwiththeirpartsandaconfigurationoftheparts.Examples:Physical:ThebodyanditspartsMetaphorical:Thefamily;ThecastestructureofIndia,37,Pathschema（路径图式）,Involvesphysicalormetaphoricalmovementfromplacetoplace,andconsistsofastartingpoint,agoal,andaseriesofintermediatepoints.,38,Examples:Physical:Paths;TrajectoriesMetaphorical:Tomhasgonealongwaytowardchanginghispersonality.Youhavereachedthemidpointofyourflighttraining.Shesjuststartingouttomakeherfortune.Janewassidetrackedinhersearchforself-understanding.,39,Scaleschema（标量图式）,Involvesanincreaseordecreaseofphysicalormetaphoricalamountconsistsofanyofthefollowing:Aclosed-oropen-endedprogressionofamountApositionintheprogressionofamountOneormorenormsofamountAcalibrationofamount,40,Examples:PhysicalamountsPropertiesinthenumbersystemEconomicentitiessuchassupplyanddemand,41,Verticalityschema（垂直图式),Involves“up”and“down”relations.Examples:StandinguprightClimbingstairsViewingaflagpoleWatchingwaterriseinatub,B,A,42,43,3.4Metaphor,Metaphorinvolvesthecomparisonoftwoconceptsinthatoneisconstruedintermsoftheother.Itsoftendescribedintermsofatargetdomainandasourcedomain.Thetargetdomainistheexperiencebeingdescribedbythemetaphorandthesourcedomainisthemeansthatweuseinordertodescribetheexperience.LakoffSADISDOWNThatboostedmyspiritsImfeelingdownImdepressedCONSCIOUSISUP;UNCONSCIOUSISDOWNWakeupHefellasleepHesunderhypnosis,49,50,3.5Metonymy,Metonymy,inthecognitiveliterature,isdefinedasacognitiveprocessinwhichthevehicleprovidesmentalaccesstoanotherconceptualentity,thetarget,withinthesamedomain.Metonymyinthecognitiveliteratureismodeledindifferentways:,51,Itismodeledasidealizedcognitivemodels(ICMs)byLakoff(1987),conceptualmappingsbyRadden&Kovecses(1999),domainhighlightingbyCroft(2002),combinationsofmappingsandhighlightingbyRuizdeMendoza(2000),scenariosbyPanther&Thornburg(1999)moregenerallyasreference-pointactivationbyLangacker(1999)andBarcelona(2000).,1,52,Onthebasisoftheontologicalrealms,wemaydistinguishthreecategories:theworldof“concept”theworldof“form”theworldof“things”and“events”Theyroughlycorrespondtothethreeentitiesthatcomprisethewell-knownsemantictriangle.TheinterrelationsbetweenentitiesofthesameorfromdifferentontologicalrealmsleadtovariousICMsandpossibilitiesformetonymy.Thus,wehavethreeICMsinontologicalrealms:SignICMs,ReferenceICMsandConceptICMs.,53,3.6BlendingTheory,FauconnierandTurner(1994,1995)proposeanddiscussblendingorintegrationtheory,acognitiveoperationwherebyelementsoftwoormore“mentalspa