合作原则ppt课件

ConversationalImplicature,1,CONTENT,CooperationPrinciple,Non-observanceofconversationalmaxims,PropertiesofConversationalImplicature,2,H.P.Grice,PaulGrice(March13,1913August28,1988),usuallypublishingunderthenameH.P.Grice,H.PaulGrice,orPaulGrice,wasaBritish-educatedphilosopheroflanguage,whospentthefinaltwodecadesofhiscareerintheUnitedStates.Gricesworkonthenatureofmeaninghasinfluencedthephilosophicalstudyofsemantics.Histheoryofimplicatureisamongthemostimportantandinfluentialcontributionstocontemporarypragmatics.“Meaning”（1957）,3,CooperationPrinciple,合作原则提出的理据“LogicandConversation”（“逻辑与会话”），文中提出了著名的“合作原则”。该论文的宗旨不在于提出一个关于会话的理论，而是要解决如何分析自然语言的语义问题。罗素（Russell）要通过逻辑分析消除语言的日常用法对哲学和逻辑带来的消极影响，不合逻辑定义的则说明日常语言有缺陷。与罗素不同，Grice想通过对日常语言的分析发现其自身的特点然后再寻找它跟哲学的结合点。也就是说逻辑分析只能解决日常语言中的一部分语义问题，多出来的部分需要通过新的途径（如语用学）来解决。那么如何解决多出来的意义呢？,4,Grice提出了“言外之意”的理论。凡用逻辑语义理论解决不了的意义，则需要借助“言外之意”理论加以解决。言外之意有多种，其中突出的就是“会话含义”。会话含义是人们根据会话原则是否得到遵守而推导出来的一种意义，这是随语境变化而变化的语用意义。,5,CooperationPrinciple,哲学基础：Grice套用了康德的量、质、关系和方式四个哲学范畴体系：任何事物都有自身一定的量的规定性，质的规定性，有与其他事物的关系，有自身存在的方式。,6,Grice构建的意义理论是以他对语言和思维的关系的理解为基础的。,Thought,Reality,Language,7,CooperationPrinciple,PaulGriceproposedthatallspeakers,regardlessoftheirculturalbackground,adheretoabasicprinciplegoverningconversationwhichhetermedTheCooperativePrinciple.Underthisprinciplefallfourcategoriesofmaxim.,8,CooperationPrinciple,ContentsofCP,Quantity,Quality,Relation,Manner,9,Quantity数量,1)Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.2)Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.,不多说，也不少说,10,E.g.1.A：你感冒了吗？眼睛红红的？B：我没感冒。昨晚没睡好，所以眼睛红了。2.A：你感冒了吗？眼睛红红的？B：哎呀别提了，昨晚陪朋友出去玩，说好十点前回家睡觉的，谁知后来大家玩开了，唱完K又去吃宵夜，吃完宵夜又开了一桌牌，闹完都凌晨一点多了。回到家就更别提了，热水器坏了，修半天也修不好，只好用水壶烧水洗澡，等到上床睡觉天都快亮了。唉。困死我了。真想找个地睡一觉，要是不用上班也有钱花该多好。,11,Quality质量,1)Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.2)Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.,说真话,12,E.g.1.A：你干嘛又换手机啊?什么时候买的啊?多少钱啊?我也想买一部。B：唉，之前那部被人偷啦这部前天才买的，花了我两千多呢!2.A：你想应聘我们公司这份工作的话，必须达到我们的招聘要求。我们要求有5年以上工作经验的，你符合要求吗？B：当然啦！我在这行干了超过8年啦！(其实根本没有工作经验)A：那么请问你之前八年在哪里高就呢？主要负责哪方面的工作？B：。,“用了xx产品，今年20，明年18。”“皇上万岁万岁万万岁！”,13,Relation相关,Berelevant.话题要相关。说话要相关，贴切。,14,E.g.1.A：我家来客人了，不够地方住，可以去你家住两晚吗?B：当然可以啊，我家客房正空着呢!欢迎光临!2.A:Letsplaytennis.B:Ihaveastomachache.,15,Manner方式,Beperspicuous1)avoidobscurityofexpression.避免晦涩2)avoidambiguity.避免歧义3)bebrief.简单明了4)beorderly.井井有条,16,E.g.Letsgetthekidssomething.Okay,butIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.,17,Grice把交谈看作是人类有目的性的、合理的社会行为之一，因此，上述的各条准则并非只在进行交谈时需要遵守，在从事其他的社会活动时也同样适用：以下是适用于其他社会活动的例子:1.Quantity:Ifyouareassistingmetomendacar.Iexpectyourcontributiontobeneithermorenorlessthanisrequired.If,forexample,ataparticularstageIneedfourscrews,Iexpectyoutohandmefour,ratherthantwoorsix.2.Quality:Iexpectyourcontributionstobegenuineandnotspurious.IfIneedsugarasaningredientinthecakeyouareassistingmetomake,Idonotexpectyoutohandmesalt:ifIneedaspoon,Idonotexpectatrickspoonmadeofrubber.,18,3.Relation:Iexpectapartnerscontributiontobeappropriatetotheimmediateneedsateachstageofthetransaction.IfIammixingingredientsforacake,Idonotexpecttobehandedagoodbook,orevenanovencloth(thoughthismightbeanappropriatecontributionatalaterstage).4.Manner:Iexpectapartnertomakeitclearwhatcontributionheismakingandtoexecutehisperformancewithreasonabledispatch.（Grice,1975）,19,ViolationofCPoccurs,whatfollows?,Implicature(会话含义，言外之意),20,Implicature,Levinson（1983:131）把Grice的含义归纳为以下几种：,非自然意义,直义,含义,规约含义,非规约含义,会话含义,非会话含义,一般会话含义,特殊会话含义,21,Implicature,conventionalimplicature规约含义由所使用的单词、词语本身所具有的规约意义决定的。e.g.HeisanEnglishman,heis,therefore,brave.,22,conversational/non-conventionalimplicature会话/非规约含义meanstheadditional,unstatedmeaning,thatis,whataspeakercanimply,suggest,ormeanmorethanwhatissaid,asdistinctfromwhatthespeakerliterallysays.和说话人所用的单词、词语之间的关系是间接的，它固然要以话语的语义内容为基础，但说话人所要表达的内容无疑要多余话语的语义内容。,23,Grice(1975)listsfourpossiblesituationswherethecooperationprinciplecanbeviolated:1)Thespeakermayviolatethecooperationprincipledelibratelybutwithoutmakingthehearerrealizeit.Inthiscase,thespeakerismostlikelytomisleadthehearer.Forexample,whensomeoneistellingalie,heviolatestheQualityMaximbysayinguntruethings.Butifthehearerdosenotrealizethisandassumesthatthespeakerfollowsthecooperativeprinciple,hewillbemisled.2)Thespeakermayaviodcooperationinanexplicitwaybytellingthehearerthatheisunwillingtocooperate.Ifsomeoneasksaquestion,thehearercansaythathedoesntwanttoanswer,orhecannotsayanymore.,24,3)Thespeakermayfaceadilemma.Ontheonehand,hewantstoholdthequalitymaximthepresentstagerequires,whileontheotherhand,thereisapossibilitythatothermaximswillbeviolatedifthequalitymaximisheld.Thereisaclashhere.4)Thespeakermaydeliberatelyviolateoneofthemaximsorfailtofulfillit.Butthisisdifferentfromthefirstcaseinthatthespeakerassumesthatthehearerknowsheintendstodosomething,andthehearerstillregardshimbeingcooperativeinobservingthegeneralcooperativeprinciple.Thehearerknowsthatthespeakerisnottryingtomisleadhim.,25,Non-observanceofconversationalmaxims,floutingamaxim明显违反violatingamaxim暗中违反optingoutamaxim放弃遵守infringingamaxim无意违反suspendingamaxim搁置,26,Floutingamaxim明显违反准则,Aspeakerblatantlyfailstoobserveamaximatthelevelofwhatissaid,withthedeliberateintentionofgenerationanimplicature.e.g.A:Ishenice?B:Sheseemstolikehim.,27,Violatingamaxim暗中违反准则,Inhis1975paper,Gricedefinedthiscategoryspecificallyastheunostentatiousnon-observanceofamaxim.Ifaspeakerviolatesamaxim,hewillbeliabletomislead.(1975:49)e.g.ColleagueA:WhyisBenabsent?ColleagueB:Hiswifeisill.,28,Optingoutamaxim放弃遵守准则,Aspeakeroptsoutofobservingamaximbyindicatingunwillingnesstocooperateinthewaythemaximrequires.Instancesofoptingoutoccurfrequentlyinpubliclife,whenthespeakercannot,perhapsforlegalorethicalreasons,replyinthewaynormallyexpected.Ontheotherhand,thespeakerwishestoavoidgeneratingafalseimiplicatureorappearinguncooperative.Or,givingtherequestedinformationmighthurtathirdpartyorputthemindanger.,29,E.g.ColleagueA:ltsimpossible.HowcanitbethatDr.WallaceratherthanDr.Meyisgoingtobepromotedtothedirectorsposition?Whosaysthat?ColleagueB:Itistrue.ButIcannottellyouwhosaysit.,30,Infringingamaxim无意违反准则,lnthecaseofinfringingamaxim,aspeakerfailstoobserveamaxim,withnointentionofgeneratinganyimplicature,norwithanyintentionofdeceiving.Thenon-observancestemsfromimperfectlinguisticperformanceratherthanfromanydesireonthepartofthespeakerstogenerateaconversationalimplicature(Thomas,1995:74).Imperfectlinguisticperformance:animperfectcommandofthelanguage,onesperformanceisimpairedinsomewaynervousness,drunkenness,excitement,etc.),somecognitiveimpairment,orthespeakerisconstitutionallyincapableofspeakingclearly,tothepoint,etc.,31,Suspendingamaxim搁置准则,.inourlivestherearecertaineventsinwhichparticipantsarenotexpectedtoobservethemaxims;andhence,thereisnoimplicaturearisingfromthenon-observanceofthemaxims.Itiswell-knowthatineveryculturetherearetaboosandeuphemisms,andthateuphemismswillalwaysbeusedwhentaboothingsoreventsarementioned.maybeculture-specificorspecifictoparticularevents.,32,PropertiesofConversationalImplicature,1.Defeasibility/cancellability（可取消性）2.Nondetachability（不可分离性）3.Calculability（可推导性）4.non-conventionality（非规约性）,33,Defeasibility/cancellability可取消性,Animplicaturecanbecanceledbyadditionalinformationwithoutcontradictionoranomaly.Thisallowsthespeakertoimplysomething,andthendenythatimplicature.,指在一定的语言或非语言的语境之中，一个句子原来所具有的会话含义可能会消失（何兆熊，1999：161）。会话含义是由听话者根据具体语境推导所得而非说话者所说话语的字面意义，因此说话者可以通过特定手段以否认听话者的推论。,34,E.g.A:Doyouwantsometea?B:Teawouldkeepmeawake.(ButIdowanttostayawaketonight.)Withoutthepartinthebrackets,Bwouldimplicatethathedoesnotwantanytea.However,byaddingthebracketedpart,hesucceedsincancellingtheimplicature.,甲：你见到他女朋友了么？乙：见到了。甲：怎样？漂亮吗？乙：漂亮，至少不难看！,35,Nondetachability不可分离性,Theycanbenon-detachable.BythisGricemeansthattheimplicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottolinguisticform,andthereforeimplicaturescannotbedetachedfromanutterancesimplybychangingthewordsoftheutteranceforsynonyms.会话含义是依附于话语的语义内容，而不是语言形式。因此，我们能用同义成分来替换话语的某一部分，而不改变原来的含义。,36,E.g.Johnsagenius.Johnisamentalprodigy.(智力奇才)Johnisanexceptionallycleverhumanbeing.Johnsabigbrain.,37,Calculability可推导性,Thelistenercanconcludethecorrespondingconversationalimplicaturefromtheliteralmeaningofthewords,therulesofthecooperativeprincipleandthecontext.听话人一方面根据话语的字面意思，另一方面根据合作原则的各项准则，推导出相应的语用含义。,38,E.g.Daughter:Mum,youhaventgivenmemyweeklypocketmoneyyet.Mother:LetsseehowyouaredoingwiththisSaturdayspi