法律英语案例赏析

.,法律英语案例赏析,李想,.,Syllabus,1.Briefintroductionoflaw2.CasesforConstitution/CriminalLaw/CivilLaw/ContractLaw/CompanyLaw/CopyrightLaw/EnvironmentProtectionLaw/PropertyLaw/LawofMarriage/3.Fourdebateordiscussionovermoives.,.,Notice,Nohomeworkbutdoreviewthelecture.Attendenceisveryimportant.(Absence:3times).,.,Contacts,E-mailaddress:fiona-pisces,.,LadyJusticeisthesymbolofthejudiciary.Justiceisdepictedasagoddessequippedwiththreesymbolsoftheruleoflaw:aswordsymbolizingthecourtscoercivepower;scalesrepresentingtheweighingofcompetingclaims;andablindfoldindicatingimpartiality.,KingHammurabiisrevealedthecodeoflawsbytheMesopotamiansungodShamash,alsoreveredasthegodofjustice,.,Introductiontolaw,Lawisasystemofrules,usuallyenforcedthroughasetofinstitutions.Itshapespolitics,economicsandsocietyinnumerouswaysandservesasaprimarysocialmediatorinrelationsbetweenpeople.Contractlawregulateseverythingfrombuyingabustickettotradingonderivativesmarkets.Propertylawdefinesrightsandobligationsrelatedtothetransferandtitleofpersonal(oftenreferredtoaschattel)andrealproperty.Trustlawappliestoassetsheldforinvestmentandfinancialsecurity,whiletortlawallowsclaimsforcompensationifapersonsrightsorpropertyareharmed(oftenconsideredcivilcaseiffiledunderanissueoftortlawvs.criminal).Iftheharmiscriminalisedinpenalcode,criminallawoffersmeansbywhichthestatecanprosecutetheperpetrator.Constitutionallawprovidesaframeworkforthecreationoflaw,theprotectionofhumanrightsandtheelectionofpoliticalrepresentatives.Administrativelawisusedtoreviewthedecisionsofgovernmentagencies,whileinternationallawgovernsaffairsbetweensovereignnationstatesinactivitiesrangingfromtradetoenvironmentalregulationormilitaryaction.Writingin350BC,theGreekphilosopherAristotledeclared,Theruleoflawisbetterthantheruleofanyindividual.,.,Legalsystemselaboraterightsandresponsibilitiesinavarietyofways.Ageneraldistinctioncanbemadebetweencivillawjurisdictions,whichcodifytheirlaws,andcommonlawsystems,wherejudgemadelawisnotconsolidated.Insomecountries,religionstillinformsthelaw.Lawprovidesarichsourceofscholarlyinquiry,intolegalhistory,philosophy,economicanalysisorsociology.Lawalsoraisesimportantandcomplexissuesconcerningequality,fairnessandjustice.Initsmajesticequality,saidtheauthorAnatoleFrancein1894,thelawforbidsrichandpooraliketosleepunderbridges,beginthestreetsandstealloavesofbread.Inatypicaldemocracy,thecentralinstitutionsforinterpretingandcreatinglawarethethreemainbranchesofgovernment,namelyanimpartialjudiciary,ademocraticlegislature,andanaccountableexecutive.Toimplementandenforcethelawandprovideservicestothepublic,agovernmentsbureaucracy,themilitaryandpolicearevital.Whilealltheseorgansofthestatearecreaturescreatedandboundbylaw,anindependentlegalprofessionandavibrantcivilsocietyinformandsupporttheirprogress.,.,DifferentCategories,substantivelawandprocedurallaw;civillawsystemandcommonlawsystem;departmentsoflaw:Constitution/Administrativelaw/TortLaw/CriminalLaw/CivilLaw/InternationalLaw/ContractLaw/CompanyLaw/CopyrightLaw/EnvironmentProtectionLaw/ConsumerLaw/PropertyLaw/LawofMarriage,etc.,.,Substantivelawandprocedurallaw,Substantivelawisthestatutoryorwrittenlawthatgovernsrightsandobligationsofthosewhoaresubjecttoit.Substantivelawdefinesthelegalrelationshipofpeoplewithotherpeopleorbetweenthemandthestate.Substantivelawstandsincontrasttoprocedurallaw.Procedurallawcomprisestherulebywhichacourthearsanddetermineswhathappensincivillawsuit,criminaloradministrativeproceedings.Therulesaredesignedtoensureafairandconsistentapplicationofdueprocess(intheU.S.)orfundamentaljustice(inothercommonlawcountries)toallcasesthatcomebeforeacourt.whichcomprisestherulesbywhichacourthearsanddetermineswhathappensincivilorcriminalproceedings.Procedurallawdealswiththemethodandmeansbywhichsubstantivelawismadeandadministered.Thetimeallowedforonepartytosueanotherandtherulesoflawgoverningtheprocessofthelawsuitareexamplesofprocedurallaws.Substantivelawdefinescrimesandpunishments(inthecriminallaw)aswellascivilrightsandresponsibilitiesincivillaw.Itiscodifiedinlegislatedstatutesorcanbeenactedthroughtheinitiativeprocess.,procedurallaw,.,Difference,Anotherwayofsummarizingthedifferencebetweensubstantiveandproceduralisasfollows:Substantiverulesoflawdefinerightsandduties,whileproceduralrulesoflawprovidethemachineryforenforcingthoserightsandduties.However,thewaytothiscleardifferentiationbetweensubstantivelawand,servingthesubstantivelaw,procedurallawhasbeenlong,sinceintheRomancivilproceduretheactioincludedbothsubstantiveandproceduralelements.,.,Civillawsystem,Civillawisthelegalsystemusedinmostcountriesaroundtheworldtoday.Incivillawthesourcesrecognisedasauthoritativeare,primarily,legislationespeciallycodificationsinconstitutionsorstatutespassedbygovernmentandcustom.,.,Commonlawsystem,Commonlawandequityarelegalsystemswheredecisionsbycourtsareexplicitlyacknowledgedtobelegalsources.Thedoctrineofprecedent,orstaredecisis(Latinfortostandbydecisions)meansthatdecisionsbyhighercourtsbindlowercourts.Commonlawsystemsalsorelyonstatutes,passedbythelegislature,butmaymakelessofasystematicattempttocodifytheirlawsthaninacivillawsystem.CommonlaworiginatedfromEnglandandhasbeeninheritedbyalmosteverycountryoncetiedtotheBritishEmpire,.,Departmentsoflaw,TheFrenchDeclarationoftheRightsofManandoftheCitizen(人权宣言),whoseprinciplesstillhaveconstitutionalvalue.,ThejudgesoftheInternationalCourtofJusticeintheHague,.,Legalinstitutions,Lawislessabodyofstaticrulesthanadynamicprocessbywhichrulesareconstantlychanged,created,andmoldedtofitparticularsituations.Changesarecontinuouslymadebyvariousinstitutionsinasociety.Lawsmaininstitutionsinliberaldemocraciesaretheindependentjudiciaries,thejusticesystems,therepresentativelegislaturesorparliaments,anaccountableexecutive,acompetentandnon-corruptbureaucracy,apoliceforce,aciviliancontrolofthemilitaryandarobustlegalprofessionensuringpeoplesaccesstojusticeandapluralisticcivilsocietyatermusedtorefertothesocialinstitutions,communitiesandpartnershipsthatformlawspoliticalbasis.,.,Judiciary,Ajudiciaryisanumberofjudgesmediatingdisputestodetermineoutcome.Mostcountrieshavesystemsofappealcourts,answeringuptoasupremelegalauthority.IntheUnitedStates,thisistheSupremeCourt;inAustralia,theHighCourt;intheUK,theHouseofLords.InChina,最高法院。Somecountriesallowtheirhighestjudicialauthoritytoover-rulelegislationtheydeterminedasunconstitutional,.,Ajudiciaryistheoreticallyboundbytheconstitution,muchaslegislativebodiesare.Inmostcountriesjudgesmayonlyinterprettheconstitutionandallotherlaws.Butincommonlawcountries,wheremattersarenotconstitutional,thejudiciarymayalsocreatelawunderthedoctrineofprecedent.Incommuniststates,suchasChina,thecourtsareoftenregardedaspartsoftheexecutive,orsubservienttothelegislature;governmentalinstitutionsandofficersexertthusvariousformsofinfluenceonthejudiciary.,.,Legislature,ProminentexamplesoflegislaturesaretheHousesofParliamentinLondon,theCongressinWashingtonD.CTopasslegislation,amajorityofMembersofParliamentmustvoteforabill(proposedlaw)ineachhouse.Normallytherewillbeseveralreadingsandamendmentsproposedbythedifferentpoliticalfactions.Ifacountryhasanentrenchedconstitution,aspecialmajorityforchangestotheconstitutionwillberequired,makingchangestothelawmoredifficult.Agovernmentusuallyleadstheprocess,whichcanbeformedfromMembersofParliament(e.g.theUKorGermany).Butinapresidentialsystem,anexecutiveappointsacabinettogovernfromhisorherpoliticalallieswhetherornottheyareelected(e.g.theUnitedStatesorBrazil),andthelegislaturesroleisreducedtoeitherratificationorveto,.,ThedebatingchamberoftheEuropeanParliament,.,Executive,Theexecutiveinalegalsystemserveasagovernmentscentreofpoliticalauthority.Inaparliamentarysystem,aswithBritain,Italy,Germany,India,andJapan,theexecutiveisknownasthecabinet,andcomposedofmembersofthelegislature.TheexecutiveischosenbythePrimeMinisterorChancellor,whoseofficeholdspowerundertheconfidenceofthelegislature.Becausepopularelectionsappointpoliticalpartiestogovern,theleaderofapartycanchangeinbetweenelections.Theheadofstateisapartfromtheexecutive,andhe/sheusuallylacksformalpoliticalpoweryetsymbolicallyenactslawsandactsasrepresentativeofthenation.ExamplesincludetheGermanpresident(appointedbytheParliament);theQueenoftheUnitedKingdom(ahereditarytitle).Theotherimportantmodelisthepresidentialsystem,foundinFrance,theU.S.andRussia.Inpresidentialsystems,theexecutiveactsasbothheadofstateandheadofgovernment,andhaspowertoappointanunelectedcabinet.Underapresidentialsystem,theexecutivebranchisseparatefromthelegislaturetowhichisnotaccountable.Althoughtheroleoftheexecutivevariesfromcountrytocountry,usuallyitwillproposethemajorityoflegislation,andproposegovernmentagenda.Inpresidentialsystems,theexecutiveoftenhasthepowertovetolegislation.Mostexecutivesinbothsystemsareresponsibleforforeignrelations,themilitaryandpolice,andthebureaucracy.Ministersorotherofficialsheadacountryspublicoffices,suchasaforeignministryorinteriorministry.Theelectionofadifferentexecutiveisthereforecapableofrevolutionisinganentirecountrysapproachtogovernment.,.,representativesofeachcountrysexecutivebranch.,G8:八国集团，由美国、英国、法国、德国、意大利、加拿大、日本和俄罗斯八国组成。,.,TheUnitedNationsNewYorkheadquartershousescivilservantsthatserveits192memberstates.,.,LegalProfession,Acorollaryoftheruleoflawistheexistenceofalegalprofessionsufficientlyautonomoustobeabletoinvoketheauthorityoftheindependentjudiciary;therighttoassistanceofanadvocateinacourtinEnglandthefunctionofbarristeroradvocateisdistinguishedfromlegalcounselor(solicitor).AstheEuropeanCourtofHumanRightshasstated,thelawshouldbeadequatelyaccessibletoeveryoneandpeopleshouldbeabletoforeseehowthelawaffectsthem.Inordertomaintainprofessionalism,thepracticeoflawistypicallyoverseenbyeitheragovernmentorindependentregulatingbodysuchasabarassociation,barcouncilorlawsociety.Modernlawyersachievedistinctprofessionalidentitythroughspecifiedlegalprocedures(e.g.successfullypassingaqualifyingex