西方思想经典导读第一讲

FromthePre-GreekTimetoRomanPeriod,TheGeneralStructure:,Pre-GreekPeriodGreekCultureRomanCulture,TwoMainParts:MesopotamianandEgyptianCulture,Time:5to6thousandyearsagoandshortlyafterthatattheendofthe4thmillenniumB.C.Geography:MesopotamianeartheTigrisandEuphratesRiverandEgyptaroundtheNileSiganificance:AlthoughwesternersaremorereadytorecognizetheirrootsinGreekCivilization,actuallywesterncivilizationwasbornintheancientNearEast.,Theword“Mesopotamia”isinoriginaGreekname“landbetweentherivers”,isatoponymfortheareaoftheTigris-Euphratesriversystem,largelycorrespondingtomodern-dayIraq,aswellassomepartsofnortheasternSyria,southeasternTurkey,andsouthwesternIran.,Mesopotamiaischaracterizedbyconstantwarfareandasuccessionofshiftingempires.BronzeAgeMesopotamiaincludedSumerandtheAkkadian,BabylonianandAssyrianempires.IntheIronAge,itwasruledbytheNeo-AssyrianandNeo-Babylonianempires.TheindigenousSumeriansandAkkadians(includingAssyriansBothhadtodevelopandmaintainorganizedsystemsofirrigationandfloodcontrol;Botheventuallyhadpowerfulkingsandapriestlycaste;Bothbelievedinall-powerfulgodswhoplayedanactiveroleintheworld.,DifferencebetweentheTwoCultures:,MesopotamiawasnotaswellprotectedgeographicallyasEgyptandwasthusmoreopentoattack;TheriversTrigrisandEuphrateswerenotasnavigable,norwerethefloodsasregularastheNiles;SothecultureofMesopotamisreflectedasenseofinstabilityandpessimismincomparisontothestabilityandoptimismthatcharacterizedEgyptians.,OtherCulturesbetweentheTwo:,Betweenthesetwoareastherearoseanumberofsmallerstates,themostimportantofwhichwerethePhoenicianandtheHebrewstates.ThePhoenicians,amerchantilepeople,facilitatedtrade,establishedcolinies,andspreadNearEasternculture.TheHebrewsdevelopedreligiousandethicalideasthatwouldbeafoundationforbothChristianandIslamiccivilization.,TheMainContents:,GeographyBriefHistorySignificanceKeyfiguresandrepresentativeworks,AncientGreeceisthetermusedtodescribetheGreek-speakingworldinancienttimes.,AreasCoveredbyAncientGreece,ItrefersnotonlytotheterritoryofthepresentGreekstate,butalsotothoseareassettledbyGreeks:Cyprus,theAegancoastofTurkey,SicilyandsouthernItaly,andthescatteredGreeksettlementsonthecoastsofwhatarenowAlbania,Bulgaria,Egypt,France,Libya,Romania,Spain,andUkraine.,BriefHistory:,ThehistoryofGreececanbetracedbacktoStoneAgehunters.LatercameearlyfarmersandthecivilizationsoftheMinoanandMycenaeankings.Thiswasfollowedbyaperiodofwarsandinvasions,knownastheDarkAges.Inabout1100BC,apeoplecalledtheDoriansinvadedfromthenorthandspreaddownthewestcoast.Intheperiodfrom500-336BCGreecewasdividedintosmallcitystates,eachofwhichconsistedofacityanditssurroundingcountryside.,ClassicalPeriod(500-336BC)-ClassicalperiodofancientGreekhistory,isfixedbetweenabout500B.C.,whentheGreeksbegantocomeintoconflictwiththekingdomofPersiatotheeast,andthedeathoftheMacedoniankingandconquerorAlexandertheGreatin323B.C.InthisperiodAthensreacheditsgreatestpoliticalandculturalheights:thefulldevelopmentofthedemocraticsystemofgovernmentundertheAthenianstatesmanPericles;thebuildingoftheParthenon(希腊的帕台农神庙)ontheAcropolis;thecreationofthetragediesofSophocles（索福柯勒斯）,Aeschylus（埃斯库罗斯）andEuripides（欧里庇得斯）;andthefoundingofthephilosophicalschoolsofSocratesandPlato.,HellenisticPeriod(希腊化时期)(336-146BC)-periodbetweentheconquestofthePersianEmpirebyAlexandertheGreatandtheestablishmentofRomansupremacy,inwhichGreekcultureandlearningwerepre-eminentintheMediterraneanandAsiaMinor.ItiscalledHellenistic(Greek,Hellas,Greece)todistinguishitfromtheHellenicculture(古希腊文化)ofclassicalGreece.,SignificanceonWesternCivilization:,AncientGreeceisconsideredbymosthistorianstobethefoundationalcultureofWesterncivilization.GreekculturehasapowerfulinfluenceontheRomanEmpire,whichcarriedaversionofittomanypartsofEurope.AncientGreekcivilizationhasbeenimmenselyinfluentialonthelanguage,politics,educationalsystems,philosophy,artandarchitectureofthemodernworld,particularlyduringtheRenaissanceinWesternEuropeandagainduringvariousneo-classicalrevivalsin18thand19thcenturyEuropeandAmerica.,Keyfiguresandrepresentativeworks,HerodotusThucydidesTheFuneralOrationofPericlesPericlesSocratesPlatoTheApologyAristotlePolitics,Herodotus(484425B.C.)wasanancientGreekhistorianwholivedinthe5thcenturyBC.HeisregardedastheFatherofHistoryinwesternculture.Hewasthefirsthistorianknowntocollecthismaterialssystematically,testtheiraccuracytoacertainextentandarrangetheminawell-constructedandvividnarrative.Butheabsorbedmythsandthegodsinhiswriting.,Thucydides(460395B.C.)wasaGreekhistorianandauthoroftheHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,whichrecountsthe5thcenturyBCwarbetweenSpartaandAthenstotheyear411BC.Thucydideshasbeendubbedthefatherofscientifichistorybecauseofhisstrictstandardsofevidence-gatheringandanalysisintermsofcauseandeffectwithoutreferencetointerventionbythegods.Anditisthissetshimapartformotherhistorians.Ashehimselfputit,Myhistoryisaneverlastingpossession,notaprizecompositionwhichisheardandforgotten.,TheFuneralOrationofPericlesinourtextbookispartofhisworkHistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,whichisafamousspeechpresentedbytheAthenianleaderPericlesfortheAtheniankilledinthefirstcampaignsagainsttheSpartans.ThespeechisfirstaglorificationofAthensuniquenessandachievements,designedtostirthespiritsofastatestillatwar.ItalsoshowshowPericlesdefinedtheproperbalancebetweenAtheniansfreedomasindividualsandtheircommitmentsascitizens.,Pericles(495429B.C.)wasaprominentandinfluentialstatesman,orator,andgeneralofAthensduringthecitysGoldenAgespecifically,thetimebetweenthePersianandPeloponnesianwars.HehadsuchaprofoundinfluenceonAtheniansocietythatThucydides,hiscontemporaryhistorian,acclaimedhimasthefirstcitizenofAthens.TheperiodduringwhichheledAthens,roughlyfrom461to429B.C,issometimesknownastheAgeofPericles.Hepromotedtheartsandliterature,whichwasachiefreasonAthensholdsthereputationofbeingtheeducationalandculturalcentreoftheancientGreekworld.Furthermore,PericlesfosteredAtheniandemocracytoahighextent.,Socrates(469-399B.C.)wasoneofthemostadimiredmeneverinwesterncivilization.HewastheeyewitnessoftheupsanddownsofAtheniandemocracy-fromPericlesdemocraticreformtothedeclineofdemocratictoleranceaftertheAthenianshumiliatingdefeatinthePeloponnesianWarin404B.C.SocratesmarkedadecisiveturningpointinGreekphilosophyandinthehistoryofwesternthought.TheSocraticconceptionoftherationalindividualbecameanessentialcomponentofthetraditionofclassicalhumanism.,Socrateshadapositivephilosophy.Hebelievedthathumanbeingspossesstheinbornknowledgeonlytobedrawnoutifpeopereducationisemployed.Aneducatedmind,accordingtohim,isonthewaytoavirtuousandwiselife.Totesthisphilosophy,Socratescreatedadistinctiveapproach-dialecticmethod,namely,atechniquebyaskingaseriesofknowledge-seekingquestions.HewanderedaboutAthens,askingpeoplefromallwalksoflifequestionsthatmighthelphimrevealtruthandwisdom.Whilegainingalargenumberofyoungdisciplesalongtheway,hehadoffendedthosewhoseignorancewaslaidopentothepublic.Theycounter-attackedbyaccusinghimofimpietyandcorruptionofyouth.SoSocrateswasfoundguiltybyavoteof280to220andcondemnedtodeathbytheAthenianassemby.Despitethefactthathehadthechancetogetaway,hechosetodrinkpoisonoushemlock.,SinceSocratesleftnothingforustoread,ourknowledgeofhisthoughtcamefromhiscontemporaries,chieflyfromPlato(428-347B.C.),hisdisciple.ItissaidthatPlatowaspresentwhenSocratestookhisownlife.PlatotookSocratesashismaincharacterinhiscollectionsofdialoguesinlinewithSocrateslifeandteachingsinearlierdialogues,whileinlateronesheapparentlyconveyedhisownthoughtthroughSocrates.Platosphilosophyisacomprehensiveentityofphysics,metaphysics,ethicsandpolitics.Heacceptedpartofhisteachersideasanddevelopedothers.,Intheyear380PlatofoundedhisAcademy,whichwastheultimateancestorofthemodernuniversity.PlatosinfluenceonWesternthinkingisimmeasurable.Hisideasonpolitics,ethicsandworldoutlookserveastheroadmapforgenerationsofvariedphilosophicschools.ManyagreethathismasterpieceTheRepublicissecondonlytotheBibleinWesterncivilization.Hisinfluenceisbestdspictedbythe20th-centuryphilosopherAlfredWhiteheadwhosaidthat“thesafestgeneralcharacterizationoftheEurpoeanphilosophicaltraditionisthatitconsistsofaseriesoffootnotestoPlato.”,TheAplolgyinourtextbookiswrittenbyPlatoasanaccountofSocratesdefenseinthecourt,anditgivesaninterpretationofSocratescareer:hehasbeena“gadfly,”tryingtoawakenthenoblehorseofAthenstoanawarenessofvirtue,andheiswisestinthesensethatheisawarethatheknowsnothing.ThisaccountgivesacluetoSocratesunderstandingoffreedomandvirtueinademocraticstate.Upuntilnow,thecondemnationofSocratesisgenerallyconsideredasasymbolofthefailureofAtheniandemocracy.,Aristotle(384322B.C.)wasaGreekphilosopher,astudentofPlatoandteacherofAlexandertheGreat.Hiswritingscovermanysubjects,includingphysics,metaphysics,poetry,theater,music,logic,rhetoric,politics,government,ethics,biology,andzoology.TogetherwithPlatoandSocrates(Platosteacher),AristotleisoneofthemostimportantfoundingfiguresinWesternphilosophy.Aristotlesviewsonthephysicalsciencesprofoundlyshapedmedievalscholarship,andtheirinfluenceextendedwellintotheRenaissance,althoughtheywereultimatelyreplacedbyNewtonianphysics.Inthebiologicalsciences,someofhisobservationswereconfirmedtobeaccurateonlyinthenineteenthcentury.,Hisworkscontaintheearliestknownformalstudyoflogic,whichwasincorporatedinthelatenineteenthcenturyintomodernformallogic.Inmetaphysics,AristotelianismhadaprofoundinfluenceonphilosophicalandtheologicalthinkingintheIslamicandJewishtraditionsintheMiddleAges,anditcontinuestoinfluenceChristiantheology,especiallyEasternOrthodoxtheology,andthescholastictraditionoftheCatholicChurch.Hisethics,thoughalwaysinfluential,gainedrenewedinterestwiththemodernadventofvirtueethics.AllaspectsofAristotlesphilosophycontinuetobetheobjectofactiveacademicstudytoday.,InPolitics,Aristotleconductsacomprehensiveexaminationoftheoriginandstructureofthestate,dealingwiththetimelesstopicsonpoliticalscience:theroleofhumannatureinpolitics,therelationoftheindividualtothestate,theplaceofmoralityinpolitics,andsoon.Thepartinourtextbookfocusesonthenatureandpurposeofastateandthecentralroleofthemiddleclassinpolitics.,TheMainContents:,GeographyBriefHistorySignificanceKeyfiguresandrepresentativeworks,TheareashighlightedinyellowrepresenttheregionsunderRomanrule.Theemperorsfrom96-180ADbuiltastronggovernment,extendedtheboundariesoftheempire,anddidmuchtoimprovethebeautyofRome.AfterAureliusdiedin180AD,frequentfrontierattacksandplagueweakenedRome,beginningitsdownfall.,BriefHistoryofAncientRome,AncientRomewasacivilizationthatgrewoutofasmallagriculturalcommunityfoundedontheItalianPeninsulaasearlyasthe10thcenturyBC.LocatedalongtheMediterraneanSea,itbecameoneofthelargestempiresintheancientworld.Initscenturiesofexistence,Romancivilizationshiftedfromamonarchytoanoligarchicrepublictoanincreasinglyautocraticempire.TheRomanRepublicwasestablishedaround509B.C.,andlasteduntil27B.C.,whenAugustusbecamethefirstRomanemperor.Hislongreign,from27B.C.toA.D.14,marksthebeginningofthePaxRomana,theRomanPeace,whichendureduntilA.D.180.,TheperiodofthePaxRomanawasoneofthefinestintheancientworld.RevoltsagainstRomanrulewerefew,andRomanlegionsablydefendedtheEmpiresborders.TheMediterraneanworldhadneverenjoyedsomanyyearsofpeace,effectivegovernment,andeconomicwell-being.StrethcingfromBritaintotheArabianDesertandfromtheDanubeRivertothesandsoftheSahara,theRomanEmpireunitedsomeseventymillionpeople.ThesamelawboundtogetherItalians,Spaniards,NorthAfricans,Greeks,Syrians,andotherpeoples.Duringthe3rdcentury,theRomanEmpiresufferedhardtimes,andtheorderedcivilizationofthePaxRomanawasdestroyed.TheEmpirewasplungedintoanarchyasgeneralsviedforthethrone.Attheendofthe4thandtheopeningofthe5thcentury,severalbabariantribespouredintotheEmpireingreatnumbers.In476,theRomanEmpireinthewestfell;theeasternprovinces,however,survivedastheByzantineEmpireuntil1453.,SignificanceofRomanCulture,ThehistoryoftheRomanEmpireinfluencedwesterncivilizationinmanyways.FromLatin,thelanguageofRome,cametheRomancelanguages:French,Italian,Spanish,Portuguese,andRomania.RomanlawbecamethebasisofthelegalcodesofmostmodernEuropeanstates.RomepreservedGreekculture,thefoundationofwesternlearningandaesthetics,andspreadittootherlands.AndChristianity,thereligionofthewest,wasbornintheRomanEmpire.Inaword,AncientRomecontributedgreatlytothedevelopmentoflaw,war,art,literature,architecture,technology,religion,andlanguageintheWesternworld,anditshistorycontinuestohaveamajorinfluenceontheworldtoday.,Keyfiguresandrepresentativeworks,AeliusAristidesRomanOrationMarcusAureliusTheMeditations,AeliusAristides(A.D.117-181)wasapopularGreekorator,wholivedduringtheRomanEmpire.InthepracticeofhiscallinghetravelledthroughGreece,Italy,EgyptandAsia,andinmanyplacestheinhabitantserectedstatuestohiminrecognitionofhistalents.Aristidesworkswerehighlyesteemedbyhiscontemporaries;theyweremuchusedforschoolinstruction,anddistinguishedrhetoricianswrotecommentariesuponthem.Hisstyle,formedonthebestmodels,isgenerallyclearandcorrect,thoughsometimesobscuredbyrhetoricalornamentation.AndhisadmirerscomparedhimtothegreatestofGreekorators.,TheRomanOrationisaspeechdelieveredbyAeliusAristides,inwhichhepraisesthePaxPomanna,awell-runworld-statethatbroughtorderands