Linguistics(便于高中英语教师资格证和英语专业考研使用)

linguistics,专八语言学复习要点,1.Definitionoflanguage语言的定义,Languageisasystemofarbitrary(随意的)vocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.system-elementsoflanguagearecombinedaccordingtorules.arbitrary:nointrinsicconnectionbetweentheword”pen”andthethingweusetowritewith.(各国对笔的称呼不同)symbols:Individuallinguisticsymbolsthemselvesaremeaninglessandtheybecomemeaningfulonlywhentheyareusedtodenoteorrefertoanything.指向性rose-散发出香味的玫瑰)vocal:theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguage(书面语后于口语；儿童学口语在先)human:languageishuman-munication:功能性,2.Designfeaturesoflanguage(区别性特征),arbitrariness任意性：语言符号和它代表的意义没有天然的联系Eg：shu和Tree都能表示“树”这一概念；duality二重性：twolevels语言由声音结构和意义结构Eg：/k/,/：/和/p/-carpandparkLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,oneofsounds,andtheotherofwords.语言是由低级结构的语音和高级结构的词组成的系统，如b，i，t，单独来看，这三个音素都没有意义，但是当它们组合在一起就有了意义bit(bit)。productivity/creativity创造性/多产性：指语言可以理解并创造无限数量的新句子Productivity:Alanguageusercanunderstandandproducesentenceshe/shehasneverheardbefore.displacement移位性：Languagecanbeusedtorefertothingsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationofthespeaker语言可以表达许多不在场的东西，如过去的经历、将来可能发生的事情，或者表达根本不存在的东西等culturaltransmission文化传递性：传递文化，且语言需要后天在特定文化环境中掌握,3.FunctionsofLanguage,informative信息功能interpersonal人际功能:tocommunicateperformative施为功能：Thismeanspeoplespeakto“dothings”orperformactions比较：directivefunction指令功能：languageisusedtogetthehearertodosth.所以大部分指令类型的语句都具有该功能，既可以是直接指令也可以是隐含指令。eg.IfIwereyou,Iwouldclosethedoor.performativefunction施为功能：languageisusedtodothingsortoperformthings.例如，比赛中评委的评论性语句或者总统发表的某些宣战言论都可以算作此类功能。emotive感情功能：表达强烈情感的语言，如感叹词/句exclamatoryexpressions“天儿真好啊！等等”phaticcommunication寒暄功能：“吃了没？”Forestablishingafavorableatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontactratherthanforexchanginginformation.recreationalfunction娱乐功能:singmetalingualfunction元语言功能：用语言来谈论、改变语言本身，如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”,4.linguistics语言学主要分支-microlingusitcs微观语言学,Phonetics语音学：articulation，transmissionandreceptionofhumansounds，especiallyisolatedsounds研究语音的产生、传播、接受过程，考查人类语言中的声音Phonology音位学：branchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthesoundpatternsfromfunctionperspective.研究音节结构、分布和序列Morphology形态学：theinternalstructureofwords研究单词的内部构造和构词规则Syntax句法学：therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentences研究句子结构，词、短语组合的规则,4.linguistics语言学主要分支-microlingusitcs微观语言学,Semantics语义学：itsthesystemicstudiesonthemeaning-producingmechanisminlanguages,includingwordsandsentencesmeaning对语言产生的意义的方法的系统研究，不仅关心字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和之下的意义。如语素和句子的意义Pragmatics语用学：thestudyofmeaningincontext.Mainlyintermsoftherelati-onshipbetweenlanguageandlanguage-usersinreal-timecommunicationcontexts在语境中研究意义，从语言同使用者之间的关系出发，研究在实际交际中影响人们语言使用的各种因素。,4.linguistics语言学主要分支-macrolingustics,psycho-linguistics心理语言学socio-linguistics社会语言学anthropological-linguistics人类语言学computational-linguistics计算机语言学,5.语言学中几对基本概念,1.prescriptivestudythesmallestdiscretesegmentofsoundinastreamofspeech分为两种：辅音consonants和元音vowels2发音器官Speechorgans：声带theVocalCords：位于咽喉theLarynx中，咽喉突出的部分较喉结TheAdamsApple三个回声腔：咽腔thePharynx、口腔theoralcavity和鼻腔thenasalcavity,6.Phonetics语音学,6.3关于辅音Consonants1概念：Thereisanobstructionoftheairatsomepointofthevocaltract（发音过程中产生了气流阻塞）2分类：三类划分按照发音部位placesofarticulation：双唇音bilabial：/p/b/m/w/唇齿音labiodental:/f/v/齿音dental:/齿槽音alveolar：/t/d/s/z/n/l/r/腭音palatal:/t/d/j/软颚音velar:/k/g/喉音glottal：/h/按照发音方式mannersofarticulation爆破音plosives/stops:/p/,/b/滑音半元音glides/simi-vowels/approximant：/w/j/清浊特征movementofthevocalcords浊辅音voicedconsonants清辅音voicelessconsonants,6.Phonetics语音学,6.4关于元音Vowelsanddiphthong1概念：Asoundpronouncedwithnoobstructionoftheairstream发音中没有出现任何气流阻塞2分类：舌翘位置thepartofthetonguethatisraised、舌高theextenttowhichthetonguerises嘴唇的形状theshapeofthelips3.Adiphthong,alsoknownasaglidingvowel,isacombinationoftwoadjacentvowelsoundswithinthesamesyllable.,6.Phonetics语音学,6.5其他相关概念1.Co-articulation或Assimilation语音同化：在一个语音群中，一个语音总会带上其附近语音的某种性质，这个现象就成为语音同化。最明显的就是鼻化，如can一词中，a的音会带上后面的鼻音n2.国际音标图IPAchart：全称是InternationalPhoneticAlphabet，由OttoJespersen(叶斯帕森，丹麦语言学家）最早提出，由danielJones琼琼斯最终完善,国际语音协会在1888年首次确定,7.Phonology音位学,7.1音位Phoneme：thesmallestunitthatiscapableofdistinguishingorcontrastingwords在语言中具有区别意义单位作用的最小语音单位anyoftheperceptuallydistinctunitsofsoundinaspecifiedlanguagethatdistinguishonewordfromanother,forexamplep,b,d,andtintheEnglishwordspad,pat,bad,andbatE.g:pig和big中的/p/和/b/就是独立的音位。音素phone和音位phoneme的区别：它们都是一种语言或方言中最小的语音单位；音素是按语音的物理性质和生理性质划分出来的最小语音单位；看两个语音形式是不是同一个音素，只需看发音动作、声学特征是否相同音位是按语音的社会性质划分出来的起辨义作用的最小语音单位。看两个语音形式是不是同一个音位，主要是看它们的社会属性，看它们能否区分不同语言符号Aphonemeisthesmalleststructuralunitthatdistinguishesmeaninginalanguage.Phonemesarenotthephysicalsegmentsthemselves,butarecognitiveabstractionsorcategorizationsofthem.Ontheotherhand,phonesrefertotheinstancesofphonemesintheactualutterances-i.e.thephysicalsegments.Forexample:thewordsmadderandmatterobviouslyarecomposedofdistinctphonemes;however,inamericanenglish,bothwordsarepronouncedalmostidentically,whichmeansthattheirphonesarethesame,oratleastverycloseintheacousticdomain.Phonesareplacewithinsquarebrackets(phonetictranscription)Phonemesareplaceinslashes/(phonemictranscription),7.Phonology音位学,7.2音位学与语音学的区别：Phonetics着重语言的自然属性physicalproperties，关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音，是音位学研究的基础,研究单个因素phonePhonologythestudyofthesoundsystemoflanguage着重强调语音的社会功能socialfunctions，对象是某种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音,7.Phonology音位学,7.2重要概念1音位Phoneme：2音位变体Allophones：anyofthespeechsoundsthatrepresentasinglephoneme,suchastheaspiratedkinkitandtheunaspiratedkinskit,whichareallophonesofthephonemek.E.g：同样/s/音，在see和cards中读音却有差别3.Freevariation自由变体自由变体是音位变体的一种，两个音素出现在相同的环境中，但并未产生两个不同的单词。（一个词可以由连两个不一样的音素发音）E.g我国长江中下游的武汉、南京等地，nn(南)也可以读成lnTwosoundsareinfreevariationwhentheyoccurinthesameenvironmentanddonotcontrast,namely,thesubstitutionofonefortheotherdoesnotproduceadifferentword,butmerelyadifferentpronunciation.,Whatisthedifferencebetweenaphonemeandanallophone?Aphonemeisthesmallestunitofsoundinspeech.Whenchildrenfirstbegintoread,weteachthatphonemeshavedistinctivesoundsthatarerepresentedbylettersandthateachphonemecarriesdistinctwordmeaning.Forexample,thewordcathasthreephonemes,caandt,butifcischangedfortheotherphonememat,themeaningofthewordchanges.Allophonesarevariationsintherealization(orsound)ofphonemes,likethedifferentpronunciationsofthephonemetinthewordtarandthewordletter,wherethetallophone(sound)issoftenedtoadsound.Allophonesdonotindicateachangeinthemeaningoftheword,nordotheyindicateachangeinthephonemeusedtomakeuptheword.Adifferencebetweenthetwoisthatchangingthephonemechangesthemeaningoftheword,whereaschangingtheallophonechangesthesoundoftherealizationofwordbutdoesnotchangethemeaningoftheword.Acommontesttodeterminewhethertwophonesareallophonesorseparatephonemesreliesonfindingminimalpairs:wordsthatdifferbyonlythephonesinquestion.Forexample,thewordstipanddipillustratethattanddareseparatephonemes,/t/and/d/,inEnglish.Tipanddip:minimalpairsCardsandsee:allophones,pinwithaspiratedp,spinwithunaspiratedp,7.Phonology音位学,7.3最小语音对MinimalPairs两个词互相之间意思不同，只差一个音素，就是最小语音对E.g：bear和pear，意思不同，只差一个音素b和p，所以bear和pear是一对最小语音对Men(2)interestingandrelevant;(3)notgrammaticallysequenced;(4)sufficient“i+1”,TheoriesofSecondLanguageAcquisition,Error,Inputenhancement.(grammarteachingstrategy)ThisisatechniquethatsimplyinvolvesmanipulatingtheL2inputinsomewaythatmakesitmorelikelythatlearnerswillnoticecertainpartsofit.Forexample,inawrittentext,eachoccurrenceofthepastperfectcouldbeunderlined,oreachindefinitearticlebolded.Therearemanystudiesofinputenhancementthatshowthatithasthepotentialtogetlearnerstopayattentiontoformwhilekeepingtheirmainfocusonthemeaningoftheinput.,Inputenhancementisalmostalwaysdonewithwrittentext.Inourcaseweuseditforlisteningbydigitallymanipulatingtheaudiobookandbyslightlyraisingthevolumeofeachoccurrenceofthepassiveandadverbplacementinthebook.,Inputenhancement(IE)isaconceptinsecondlanguageacquisition.MikeSharwoodSmithcoinedthetermtocovertechniquesusedbyresearcherstomakesalientselectedfeaturesofalanguageforstudentssuchaswordorder,partsofwordsthatexpresstense,agreementandnumberforexample,accents,idiomsandslang.Thesetechniquesaimtodrawattentiontoaspectsofalanguagethathavehithertoseemedtohavemadeinsufficientimpactonthelearner.,语