《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件.ppt

B,1,ACourseonLinguistics戴炜栋新编简明英语语言学教程（网络下载，调整修改中）,B,2,TheGoalsforthisCourse,Togetascientificviewonlanguage;Tounderstandsomebasictheoriesonlinguistics;Tounderstandtheapplicationsofthelinguistictheories,especiallyinthefieldsoflanguageteachingToprepareforthefutureresearchwork.,B,3,TheRequirementsforthiscourse,ClassattendanceClassroomdiscussionFulfillmentoftheassignmentExamination,B,4,ReferenceBooks,戴炜栋，何兆熊，(2002)，新编简明英语语言学教程，上海外语教育出版社。胡壮麟，(2001)，语言学教程，北京大学出版社。刘润清，(1995)，西方语言学流派，外语教学与研究出版社。Fromkin,V.cantbecombinedatwill.e.g.*bkli,*Iappleeat.,B,13,Languageisarbitrary,Arbitrary-nointrinsicconnectionbetweenthewordandthethingitdenotes,e.g.“pen”byanyothernameisthethingweusetowritewith.,B,14,Languageissymbolicinnature,Symbolic-wordsareassociatedwithobjects,actionsideasbyconvention.“Arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet”-Shakespeare,B,15,Languageisprimarilyvocal,Vocal-theprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages;writingsystemcamemuchlaterthanspokenform.,B,16,Languageishuman-specific,Human-specific-differentfromthecommunicationsystemsotherformsoflifepossess,e.g.birdsongs,beedance,animalcries.,B,17,Thedesign/definingfeaturesofhumanlanguage(CharlesHockett),ArbitrarinessProductivity/CreativityDualityDisplacementCulturaltransmission,B,18,Arbitrariness,-Nological(motivatedorintrinsic)connectionbetweensoundsandmeanings.Onomatopoeicwords(whichimitatenaturalsounds)aresomewhatmotivated(English:rumble,crackle,bang,.Chinese:putong,shasha,dingdang)Somecompoundwordsarenotentirelyarbitrary,e.g.type-writer,shoe-maker,air-conditioner,photocopy,B,19,Productivity/creativity,-Peculiartohumanlanguages，usersoflanguagecanunderstandandproducesentencestheyhaveneverheardbefore,e.g.wecanunderstandsentencelike“Ared-eyedelephantisdancingonthehotelbed”,thoughitdoesnotdescribeacommonhappeningintheworld.Agibboncallsystemisnotproductiveforgibbondrawalltheircallsfromafixedrepertoirewhichisrapidlyexhausted,makinganynoveltyimpossible.Thebeedancedoeshavealimitedproductivity,asitisusedtocommunicateaboutfoodsourcesinanydirection.Butfoodsourcesaretheonlykindofmessagesthatcanbesentthroughthebeedance;beesdonot“talk”aboutthemselves,thehives,orwind,letaloneaboutpeople,animals,hopesordesires,B,20,Duality(doublearticulation),Lowerlevel-sounds(meaningless)Higherlevel-meaning(largerunitsofmeaning)Acommunicationsystemwithdualityisconsideredmoreflexiblethanonewithoutit,forafargreaternumberofmessagescanbesent.Asmallnumberofsoundscanbegroupedandregroupedintoalargenumberofunitsofmeaning(words),andtheunitsofmeaningcanbearrangedandrearrangedintoaninfinitenumberofsentences.(wemakedictionaryofalanguage,butwecannotmakeadictionaryofsentencesofthatlanguage.,B,21,Displacement,-Languagecanbeusedtorefertothings,whicharenotpresent:realorimaginedmattersinthepast,presentorfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.AgibbonneveruttersacallaboutsomethingheatelastyearThereissomethingspecialaboutthebeedancethough.Beescommunicatewithotherbeesaboutthefoodsourcestheyhavefoundwhentheyarenolongerinthepresenceofthefood.Inthissense,thebeedancehasacomponentofdisplacement.Butthiscomponentisveryinsignificant.Forthebeesmustcommunicateaboutthefoodimmediatelyonreturningtothehive.Theydonotdanceaboutthefoodtheydiscoveredlastmonthnordotheyspeculateaboutfuturediscoveries.,B,22,Culturaltransmission,-Languageisculturallytransmitted(throughteachingandlearning;ratherthanbyinstinct).Animalcallsystemsaregeneticallytransmitted.Allcats,gibbonsandbeeshavesystemswhicharealmostidenticaltothoseofallothercats,gibbonsandbees.AChinesespeakerandanEnglishspeakerarenotmutuallyintelligible.Thisshowsthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.Thatis,itispassonfromonegenerationtothenextbyteachingandlearning,ratherthanbyinstinct.Thestoryofawolfchild,apigchildshowsthatahumanbeingbroughtupinisolationsimplydoesnotacquirehumanlanguage.,B,23,Functionsoflanguage,Phatic:establishinganatmosphereormaintainingsocialcontact.Directive:getthehearertodosomething.Informative:giveinformationaboutfacts.Interrogative:getinformationfromothers.Expressive:expressfeelingsandattitudesofthespeaker.Evocative:createcertainfeelingsinthehearer(amuse,startle,soothe,worryorplease)Performative:languageisusedtodothings,toperformactions.,B,24,Theoriginoflanguage,Thedivine-origintheory-LanguageisagiftofGodtomankind.Theinventiontheory-imitative,criesofnature,thegruntsofmenworkingtogether.Theevolutionarytheory-theresultofphysicalandpsychologicaldevelopment.,B,25,许国璋先生认为把语言定义成交际工具不够科学,至少不够严谨.他对语言的定义做了如下概括:语言是一种符号系统.,当它作用于人与人之间的关系的时候,它是表达相互反应的中介;当它作用于人与客观世界的关系的时候,它是认知事物的工具;当它作用于文化的时候,它是文化的载体.,B,26,2.Whatislinguistics?,-Linguisticsisthescientificstudyoflanguage.-Apersonwhostudieslinguisticsisknownasalinguist.,B,27,Fourprinciplesoflinguisticstudies,Exhaustiveness/adequacyConsistencyEconomyObjectivity,B,28,Thescopeormajorbranchesoflinguistics,TheoreticallinguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsUseoflinguisticsAppliedlinguisticsSociolinguisticsPsycholinguistics,B,29,Theoreticallinguistics,Phonetics-speechsound(description,classification,transcription):articulatoryphonetics,acousticphonetics,auditoryphonetics.Phonology-soundpatternsoflanguagesMorphology-theformofwordsSyntax-therulesgoverningthecombinationofwordsintosentence.Semantics-themeaningoflanguage(whenthemeaningoflanguageisconductedinthecontextoflanguageuse-Pragmatics),B,30,Useoflinguistics,Appliedlinguistics-linguisticsandlanguageteachingSociolinguistics-socialfactors(e.g.class,education)affectlanguageusePsycholinguistics-linguisticbehaviorandpsychologicalprocessStylistics-linguisticandliterature,B,31,Someotherapplications,AnthropologicallinguisticsNeurolinguisticsComputationallinguistics(e.g.machinetranslation),B,32,Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics,B,33,Descriptivevsprescriptive,Descriptive-describe/analyzelinguisticfactsobservedorlanguagepeopleactuallyuse(modernlinguistic)Prescriptive-laydownrulesfor“correct”linguisticbehaviorinusinglanguage(traditionalgrammar),B,34,Synchronicvsdiachronic,Synchronicstudy-descriptionofalanguageatsomepointoftime(modernlinguistics)Diachronicstudy-descriptionofalanguagethroughtime(historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime),B,35,Speechvswriting,Speech-primarymediumoflanguageWriting-laterdeveloped,B,36,Languevsparole(F.deSaussure),Langue-theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofthespeechcommunity.Parole-therealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuretakesasociologicalviewoflanguageandhisnotionoflangueisamatterofsocialconventions.,B,37,Competenceandperformance(Chomsky),Competence-theidealusersknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguagePerformance-theactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunicationChomskylooksatlanguagefromapsychologicalpointofviewandtohimcompetenceisapropertyofthemindofeachindividual.,B,38,Traditionalgrammarvsmodernlinguistics,Traditionalgrammar-prescriptive,written,Latin-basedframeworkModernlinguistics-descriptive,spoken,notnecessarilyLatin-basedframework,B,39,Chapter2Phonology,Languageisprimarilyvocal.Theprimarymediumofhumanlanguageissound.Linguistsarenotinterestedinallsounds,butinspeechsounds-soundsthatconveymeaninginhumancommunication.,B,40,Phonetics,-Abranchoflinguisticswhichstudiesthecharacteristicsofspeechsoundsandprovidesmethodsfortheirdescription,classificationandtranscription,e.g.pbilabial,stop.,B,41,Threebranchesofphonetics,Articulatoryphonetics-fromthespeakerspointofview,“howspeakersproducespeechsounds”Auditoryphonetics-fromthehearerspointofview,“howsoundsareperceived”Acousticphonetics-fromthephysicalwayormeansbywhichsoundsaretransmittedfromonetoanother.,B,42,Articulatoryphonetics,B,43,Speechorgans:threeimportantareas,Pharyngealcavity-thethroat;Theoralcavity-themouth;Nasalcavity-thenose.,B,44,Thediagramofspeechorgans,LipsTeethTeethridge(alveolar)HardpalateSoftpalate(velum)UvulaTipoftongueBladeoftongueBackoftongueVocalcordsPharyngealcavityNasalcavity,B,45,Orthographicrepresentationofspeechsounds,-AstandardizedandinternationallyacceptedsystemofphonetictranscriptionistheInternationalPhoneticAlphabet(IPA).ThebasicprincipleoftheIPAisusingonelettertorepresentonespeechsound.Broadtranscription-usedindictionaryandtextbookforgeneralpurpose,withoutdiacritics,e.g.clearl,pitNarrowtranscription-usedbyphoneticianforcarefulstudy,withdiacritics,e.g.darkl,aspiratedp,B,46,Somemajorarticulatoryvariables,-dimensionsonwhichspeechsoundsmayvary:Voicing-voicedfricatives:f,v,s,z,W,T,F,V,h;affricates:tF,dV;liquids:l(lateral),r;nasals:m,n,N;glides/semivowels:w,j.,B,50,Theplaceofarticulation,bilabial:p,b,m,w;labiodental:f,v;dental:W,T;alveolar:t,d,s,z,n,l,r;palatal:F,V,tF,dV,j;velar:k,g,N;glottal:h.,B,51,Theplaceofarticulation,Bilabial;Labiodental;Dentalorinterdental;Alveolar;Palatoalveolar;Palatal;Velar;Uvular;Glottal.,B,52,ThedescriptionofEnglishconsonants,B,53,Classificationofvowels,-Englishvowelscanbedividedintotwolargecategories:Monophthongsorpure/singlevowelsDiphthongsorglidingvowels,B,54,Monophthongsorpure/singlevowels,-Accordingtowhichpartofthetongueisheldhighestintheprocessofproduction,thevowelscanbedistinguishedas:frontvowels:I:,I,e,Z,A,B;centralvowels:E:,E,Q;backvowels:u:,u,C:,C,B:.,B,55,Accordingtotheopennessofthemouth,Close:I:,I,u:,u.Semi-close:e,E:;Semi-open:E,C;Open:A,B,C,B:,Q;,B,56,Thediagramofsinglevowelclassificationbyapplyingthetwocriteriasofarmentioned:,B,57,Accordingtotheshapeofthelipsorthedegreeofliprounding,rounded:u:,u,C:,C;unrounded:I:,I,e,Z,A,B,E:,E,Q,B:.,B,58,Accordingtothelengthofthevowels,long:I:,E:,u:,C:,B:short:I,e,Z,A,E,Q,B,u,C.,B,59,Diphthongs/glidingvowels,ei,ai,aU,EU,Ri,iE,ZE,UE.,B,60,Exercises:underlinethewordsthatbeginwithasoundasrequired.,Abilabialconsonant:madsadbadcadpadhadladAvelarconsonant:nodgodcodpodrodLabiodentalconsonant:ratfatsatmatchatvatpatAnalveolarconsonant:nicklicksicktickkickquickApalato-alveolarconsonant:sipshiptipchiplipzipAdentalconsonant:liebuythighthytieryeAglide:onewaryolkrush,B,61,Underlinethewordsthatendwithasoundasrequired:,AfricativepayhorsetoughricebreathpushsingwreathehangcavemessageAnasaltrainbangleaflimbAstopdrillpipefitcrabfogridelaughrackthroughtipAnaffricate:racksuchridgebooze,B,62,Underlinethewordsthatcontainthesoundasrequired:,Acentralvowel:madlotbutbootwordAfrontvowel:reedpadloadfatebitbedcookAroundedvowel:whohebusherhittruebossbarwalkAbackvowel:paidreapfooltopgoodfather,B,63,Describetheunderlinedconsonantsaccordingtothreedimensions:,vd/vlplacemannerLetterBrotherSunnyHopperItchingLodgerCallingSingingRobbereither,B,64,Phonology,Phonologystudiesthepatterningofspeechsounds,thatis,thewaysinwhichspeechsoundsformsystemsandpatternsinhumanlanguages.,B,65,Phoneticsitisinterestedinallthespeechsoundsusedinallhumanlanguages;itaimstoanswerquestionslike:howtheyareproduced,howtheydifferfromeachother,whatphoneticfeaturestheyhave,howtheycanbeclassified,etc.Phonologyaimstodiscoverhowspeechsoundsinalanguageformpatternsandhowthesesoundsareusedtoconveymeaninginlinguisticcommunication.,B,66,Phone,phoneme,allophone,B,67,Phone,Aphone-aphoneticunitorsegment.Thespeechsoundswehearandproduceduringlinguisticcommunicationareallphones.Phonesdonotnecessarilydistinguishmeaning,somedo,somedont,e.g.bI:titisaunitofdistinctivevalue;anabstractunit,notaparticularsound,butitisrepresentedbyacertainphoneincertainphoneticcontext,e.g.thephoneme/p/canberepresenteddifferentlyinpIt,tIpandspIt.,B,69,Allophone,Allophones-thephonesthatcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironments.,B,70,Phonemiccontrast,complementarydistributionandminimalpair.,B,71,Phonemiccontrast,Phonemiccontrast-differentordistinctivephonemesareinphonemiccontrast,e.g./b/and/p/inbItandpIt.,B,72,Complementarydistribution,Complementarydistribution-allophonesofthesamephonemeareincomplementarydistribution.Theydonotdistinguishmeaning.Theyoccurindifferentphoneticcontexts,e.g.darklbutthegsoundispronouncedintheircorrespondingformssignature,designation,paradigmatic.,B,80,Suprasegmentalfeatures,Suprasegmentalfeatures-thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments(largerthanphoneme):stresstoneintonation,B,81,Syllable(whatissyllable?),AncientGreek:aunitofspeechsoundconsistingofavoweloravowelwithoneormorethanoneconsonant.Dictionary:wordorpartofawordwhichcontainsavowelsoundorconsonantactingasavowel.Thesyllableconsistsofthreeparts:theONSET,thePEAK,theCODA,e.g.mAn.Thepeakistheessentialpart.Itisusuallyformedbyavowel.Butl,nandmmightalsofunctionaspeaksasin“apple,hidden,communism”.,B,82,Stress,WordstressSentencestress,B,83,Wordstress,ThelocationofstressinEnglishdistinguishesmeaning,e.g.ashiftinstressinEnglishmaychangethepartofspeechofaword:verb:im5port;in5crease;re5bel;re5cordnoun:5import;5increase;5rebel;5record,B,84,Wordstress,Similaralterationofstressalsooccursbetweenacompoundnounandaphraseconsistingofthesameelements:compound:5blackbird;5greenhouse;5hotdognounphrase:black5bird;green5house;hot5dog,B,85,Wordstress,Themeaning-distinctiveroleplayedbywordstressisalsomanifestedinthecombinationsof-ingformsandnouns:modifier:5dining-room;5readingroom;5sleepingbagdoer:sleeping5baby;swimming5fish;flying5plane,B,86,Sentencestress,Sentencestress-therelativeforcegiventothecomponentsofasentence.Generally,nouns,mainverbs,adjectives,adverbs,numeralsanddemonstrativepronounsarestressed.Othercategorieslikearticles,personpronouns,auxiliaryverbsprepositionsandconjunctionsareusuallynotstressed.Note:forpragmaticreason,thisruleisnotalwaysright,e.g.wemaystressanypartinthefollowingsentences.Heisdrivingmycar.Mymotherboughtmeanewskirtyesterday.,B,87,Tone,Tonesarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcords.Englishisnotatonelanguage,butChineseis.ma妈(level)ma麻(thesecondrise)ma马(thethirdrise)ma骂(thefourthfall),B,88,Intonation,Whenpitch,stressandlengthvariationsaretiedtothesentenceratherthantotheword,theyarecollectivelyknownasintonation.Englishhasthreetypesofintonationthataremostfrequentlyused:fallingtone(matteroffactstatement)risingtone(doubtsorquestion)thefall-risetone(impliedmessage)Forinstance,“Thatsnotthebookhewants.”,B,89,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,-Intonationplaysanimportantroleintheconveyanceofmeaninginalmosteverylanguage,esp.inEnglish.a)Itmayindicatedifferentsentencetypesbypitchdirection.,B,90,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,b)Itmayimposedifferentstructuresonthesentencebydividingitintodifferentintonationunits,e.g.“JohndidntcomebecauseofMarry”Withinoneintonationunit,itmeans:Johncame,butithadnothingtodowithMarry.Withtwointonationunits,itmeans:MarrywasthereasonwhyJohndidntcome.Exercises:Thinkoftheutteranceindifferentintonations:“Thosewhoboughtquicklymadeaprofit.”,B,91,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,c)Itcanmakeacertainpartofasentenceespeciallyprominentbyplacingnucleusonit,e.g.Jackcameyesterdaybytrain.,B,92,Grammaticalfunctionsofintonations,d)Itsattitudinalfunctions.Fallingtone-matter-of-factstatement,downrightassertion,commands.Risingtone-politeness,encouragement,pleading.Note:thesecanonlybeverygeneralindications.Thespecificattitudinalmeaningofanintonationpatternmustbeinterpretedwithinacontext.,B,93,Chapter3Morphology,Morphologyreferstothestudyoftheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.,B,94,Openclasswordandclosedclassword,Openclasswords-contentwordsofalanguagetowhichwecanregularlyaddnewwords,suchasnouns,adjectives,verbsandadverbs,e.g.beatnik(amemberoftheBeatGeneration),hacker,email,internet,“做秀，时装秀”inChinese.Closedclasswords-grammaticalorfunctionalwords,suchasconjunction,articles,prepositionandpronouns.,B,95,Morpheme-theminimalunitofmeaning,-Wordsarecomposedofmorphemes.Wordsmayconsistofonemorphemeormoremorphemes,e.g.1-morphemeboy,desire2-morphemeboy+ish,desir(e)+ble3-morphemeboy+ish+ness,desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morphemegentle+man+li+ness,un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morphemeun+gentle+man+li+ness6-morphemeanti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism,B,96,Affix,Prefix-morphemesthatoccuronlybeforeothers,e.g.un-,dis,anti-,ir-,etc.Suffix-morphemesthatoccuronlyafterothers,e.g.-ful,-er,-ish,-ness,-able,-tive,tion,etc.,B,97,Freemorphemetheyneverchangetheirsyntacticcategory,neveraddanylexicalmeaning,e.g.a)number:tablesapplescarsb)person,finitenessandaspect:talk/talks/talking/talkedc)case:John/Johns,B,100,Someotherterms,RootStemBase,B,101,Root,Arootisthatpartofthewordleftwhenalltheaffixes(inflectional(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry,B,111,Criteriaongoodgrammar,ObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacyTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.,B,112,Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.,Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.TherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).,B,113,Categories,Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech),B,114,Word-levelcategories,Majorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.,B,115,Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined,MeaningInflectionDistributionNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingawordscategoryisitsdistribution.,B,116,Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures,Phrasecategories-thesyntacticunitsthatare