语言学教程Chapter 8. Language in Use

ChapterEightLanguageinUse,.,2,.,3,1.DefinitionofPragmatics,Thestudyoflanguageinuse.Thestudyofmeaningincontext.Thestudyofspeakersmeaning,utterancemeaning,theutteringofthesentenceisthedoingofanaction;theycannotbesaidtobetrueorfalse.Performativeverbs:name,bet,etc.,.,14,Ido.InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.Ipromisetofinishitintime.Iapologize.Ideclarethemeetingopen.Iwarnyouthatthebullwillcharge.,.,15,Felicityconditions:A.(i)Theremustbearelevantconventionalprocedure.(ii)therelevantparticipantsandcircumstancesmustbeappropriate.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletely.C.Veryoften,therelevantpeoplemusthavetherequisitethoughts,feelingsandintentions,andmustfollowitupwithactionsasspecified.,.,16,ProblemswithfelicityconditionsNostrictprocedureforpromising.Ipromise.Igivemywordforit.Ibequeathmywatchtomybrother.(TorF?),.,17,Minister:addressingthegroom)(GroomsName),doyoutake(BridesName)foryourlawfulweddedwife,tolivetogetherafterGodsordinance,intheholyestateofmatrimony?Willyoulove,honor,comfort,andcherishherfromthisdayforward,forsakingallothers,keepingonlyuntoherforaslongasyoubothshalllive?,Groom:Ido.,.,18,FeaturesofperformativesFirstpersonsingularSpeechactverbs/performativeverbs:ThepresenttenseIndicativemoodActivevoice,.,19,Ipromisetobethere.Illbethere.IadmitIwaswrong.Iwasfoolish.Iwarnyou,thisgunisloaded.Thisgunisloaded.Ithankyou.Imverygrateful.Iapologize.Imsorry.Iorderyoutositdown.Youmustsitdown.,.,20,Conclusion:ThedistinctionbetweenconstativesMaximofQuantity:Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired(forthecurrentpurposesoftheexchange).Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanrequired.,.,28,MaximofRelation:Berelative.MaximofManner:Beperspicuous.Avoidobscurityofexpression.Avoidambiguity.Bebrief.Beorderly.,.,29,CPismeanttodescribewhatactuallyhappensinconversation.PeopletendtobecooperativeandobeyCPincommunication.,.,30,However,CPisoftenviolated.SinceCPisregulative,CPcanbeviolated.ViolationofCPanditsmaximsleadstoconversationalimplicature.,.,31,Violationofthemaxims(Quantity),Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.A:昨天上街买了些什么?B:就买了些东西。IdontwanttotellyouwhatIbought.,.,32,DearSir,Mr.XscommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.YoursMr.Xisnotsuitableforthejob.,.,33,2.Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Aunt:HowdidJimmydohishistoryexam?Mother:Oh,notatallwell.Teachersaskedhimthingsthathappenedbeforethepoorboywasborn.Hersonshouldnotbeblamed.,.,34,A:Yourkidbrokethewindow.B:Boysareboys.Wariswar.,.,35,Violationofthemaxims(Quality),1.Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.Youarethecreaminmycoffee.Xrunsasfastasadeer.Heismadeofiron.,.,36,2.Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.A:BeirutisinPeru,isntit?B:AndRomeisinRomania,Isuppose.Itsridiculous.,.,37,Violationofthemaxims(Relation),Berelevant.A:Prof.Wangisanoldbag.B:Niceweatherforthetimeofyear.IdontwanttotalkaboutProf.Wang.,.,38,萍：爸爸，不过四凤同鲁贵在家里都很好,很忠诚的。朴：恩，我很累了。我预备到书房歇一下。你叫他们送一碗浓一点的普洱茶来。,.,39,Violationofthemaxims(Manner),1.AvoidobscurityofexpressionA:Letsgetthekidssomething.B:Ok,butIvetoC-H-O-C-O-L-A-T-E.Dontgivethemchocolate.,.,40,2.AvoidambiguityA:Nameandtitle,please?B:JohnSmith,AssociateEditorandprofessor.Cf:买一赠一。,.,41,3.BebriefA:Didyougetmyassignment?B:Ireceivedtwopagesclippedtogetherandcoveredwithrowsofblacksquiggles.notsatisfied.,.,42,Characteristicsofimplicature,Calculability:hearersworkoutimplicaturebasedonliteralmeaning,CPanditsmaxims,context,etc.,.,43,Cancellability/defeasibility:Ifthelinguisticorsituationalcontextschanges,theimplicaturewillalsochange.A:Doyouwantsomecoffee?B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Idonotlikecoffee.B:Coffeewouldkeepmeawake.Iwanttostayup.,.,44,Non-detachability:implicatureisattachedtothesemanticcontentofwhatissaid,nottothelinguisticform;implicaturesdonotvanishifthewordsofanutterancearechangedforsynonyms.A:Shallwegothecinematonight?B:Therellbeanexamtomorrow.Illtakeanexamtomorrow.Isntthereanexamtomorrow?,.,45,Non-conventionality:implicatureisdifferentfromitsconventionalmeaningofwords.Itiscontext-dependent.Itvarieswithcontext.A1：下午踢球去吧！A2：老王住院了？B：上午还在换草皮。A3:足球场安装了一个新门柱。,.,46,5.PolitenessPrinciple,GricesCPdoesnotexplainwhyspeakersoftenviolateCP.GeoffreyLeech:ProfessorofLinguisticsandModernEnglishLanguageatLancasterUniversityfrom1974to2002.PrinciplesofPragmatics(1983):putsforwardPPtosaveCP.,.,47,A:WellmissBillandMary,wontwe?B:Well,wellallmissBill.(violationofquantitymaxim),.,48,Self(自身)-referstothespeaker.Other(他人)-referstotheaddresseeorathirdperson,presentornot.Benefit(惠)andthefirstmaximofQuantitythePrincipleofQuantity,orQ-Principle.,.,86,TheM-principle:LevinsonmixesthepresentationofhisownideaswiththecriticismofHornsprinciples.HeaccusesHornoffailingtodrawadistinctionbetweentwokindsofminimization:asemanticminimizationandanexpressionminimization.,.,87,Thesemantic,orcontent,minimizationisequivalenttosemanticgenerality:themoregeneraltermsaremoreminimalinmeaning,havingmorerestrictedconnotation(incontrasttothemoreextendeddenotation);andthelessgeneral,themorespecific,arelessminimal,moremaximal.Forexample,shipismoregeneralthanferry,flowerthanrose,animalthantiger.Thechoiceoftheformerinsteadofthelatterisaprocesstowardminimization.,.,88,Theexpression,orform,minimizationissomemeasureofsurfacelengthandcomplexity.Itisconcernedwiththephoneticandmorphologicalmake-upofaterm.Thenormallystressedtermsaremoreminimalthantheirabnormallystressedcounterparts.Theshortertermsaremoreminimalthanlongerones,providedtheyaresynonymous,suchasfrequentandnotinfrequent,tostopacarandtocauseacartostop.,.,89,OnlythesemanticminimizationhastodowiththeI-principle.Theexpressionminimization,incontrast,isthedomainoftheprincipleofmanner,asitconcernstheformofalinguisticunit,thewaytoexpresssomethingratherthanwhatisexpressed,orhowmuchisexpressed.,.,90,Recently,Levinsoncallshisprinciples“heuristics”.Levinson(2000):PresumptiveMeaning.MIT.Heuristic1.Whatisntsaid,isnt.Heuristic2.Whatissimplydescribedisstereotypicallyexemplified.Heuristic3.Whatssaidinanabnormalway,isntnormal;orMarkedmessageindicatesmarkedsituation.,.,91,Heuristic1:Q-Heuristic“moreorlesstransparentlyrelatedtoGricesfirstMaximofQuantity”Responsiblefortwotypesofimplicatures:scalarimplicaturesandclausalimplicaturesSomeoftheboyscame.(scalar)Notalltheboyscame.Ifeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.(clausal)Eatingeggsmaybebadforyou,oritmaynotbebadforyou.,.,92,ScalarimplicaturesaretheimplicatureswhichinvolvetheQ-principleinHornssense.Wordslikeallandsomeformascalarcontrastset,inwhichallisthemoreinformative,orstronger,term,andsomethelessinformative,orweaker,term.,.,93,Clausalimplicaturesinvolvetheuseofdifferentclauses.Sinceeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.Eatingeggsmaybebadforyou,oritmaynotbebadforyou.,.,94,Twoclausalalternates:Ifeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.Sinceeatingeggsisbadforyou,youshouldgiveupomelets.whichmaybeexpressedasTheclauseusingsinceisthemoreinformative,orstronger,alternate,andtheoneusingifthelessinformative,orweaker,alternate.,.,95,Heuristic2:I-Heurisitc“mayberelateddirectlytoGricessecondMaximofQuantity,.Theunderlyingideais,ofcourse,thatoneneednotsaywhatcanbetakenforgranted”.(a)Johnturnedthekeyandtheenginestarted.(b)Johnturnedthekey,andthentheenginestarted.Johnturnedthekey,thereforetheenginestarted.Johnturnedthekeyinordertostarttheengine.,.,96,(a)Ifyoumowthelawn,Illgiveyou$5.(b)Ifandonlyifyoumowthelawn,Illgiveyou$5.(a)Johnunpackedthepicnic.Thebeerwaswarm.(b)Thebeerwaspartofthepicnic.(a)Johnsaid“Hello”tothesecretaryandthenhesmiled.(b)Johnsaid“Hello”tothefemalesecretaryandthenJohnsmiled.,.,97,(a)HarryandSueboughtapiano.(b)Theyboughtittogether,notoneeach.,(a)Johncameinandhesatdown.(b)John1cameinandhe1satdown.,.,98,Heuristic3:M-HeuristiccanberelateddirectlytoGricesmaximofManner(Beperspicuous),specificallytohisfirstsubmaximavoidobscurityofexpressionandhisfourthavoidprolixity.Theunderlyingideahereisthatthereisanimplicitoppositionorparasiticrelationshipbetweenoursecondandthirdheuristics:whatissaidsimply,briefly,inanunmarkedwaypicksupthestereotypicalinterpretation;ifincontrastamarkedexpressionisus