语言学第四章

Chapter4Syntax,Whatissyntax?,-abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.,ICategories,Categoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Syntacticcategories:wordsinallhumanlanguagescanbegroupedtogetherintoarelativelysmallnumberofclasses,calledSyntacticcategories.,1Word-levelcategories,Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)Twokindsofword-levelcategories:Majorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det（限定词）,Deg（程度词）,Qual（限定语）Auxi,Conj.,Majorlexicalcategories:referstothecategoriesthatareoftenassumedtobetheheads(中心词）aroundwhichphrasearebuilt.Findouttheheadsofthefollowingphrase:aboytwobooksthecatanapplealwaysrunseldomreadalmostdieVeryhappyalittlesadquitesmallonthedeskbythelakeMinorLexicalcategories:referstothecategoriesthatareoftenaroundsomeothercategoriestobuildaphrase,Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined,Meaning(意义）Inflection（屈折变化）Distribution（功能分布）Note:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingawordscategoryisitsdistribution.,2Phrasecategoriesandtheirstructures,Phrasecategories-thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead-thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier（标志语）-thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement（补足语）-thewordsontherightsideoftheheads,Phrasestructurerules,Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP(Det)+N+(PP)e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP(Qual)+V+(NP)e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments，marryanuglyboyAP(Deg)+A+(PP)veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP(Deg)+P+(NP)ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.,Phrasestructureis:specifier+head+complementBothspecifierandcomplementareoptional,thusaphrasecansimplybejustahead.,SpecifierXComplementHead,XP,TheXPrule,Note:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.XP(specifier)X(complement),X-Theory,XP(Specifier)X-XX(complement),X(head)complement,specifier,XP(Phraselevel),X-,Coordinationrule,Coordinationstructures-thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.WecannotjustsimplymanifestsuchstructureasXP(specifier)X(complement),Wecanmodifythisruleasfollows:XX*ConX,Thegirlandtheboy,X,X*ConX,NPconNP,DetNDetN,Thegirlandtheboy,Phraseelements,SpecifierHeadcomplement,Specifiers,-Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.determinersSpecifiersqulifiersdegreewords,Complements,-Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationabutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”,wordswhichintroducethesentencecomplementarecalledcomplementizers(补语化成分）,suchasthat/if/for.theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause（补语从句）.e.g.Ibelievethatheisinnocent.Thecomplementizertogetherwiththecomplementclauseiscalledcomplementphrasee.g.Ibelievethatheisinnocent.Theconstructioninwhichthecomplementphraseisembeddediscalledmatrixclause(主句）.Ibelievethatheisinnocent.,Modifiers（修饰语）,-Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.ThemostcommonmodifiersofNsareadjphrases,thatofverbsareadvphrasesandprepositionalphraseswhichdescribemannerandtime.BeautifulgirlpreciseanswergoodqualityReadcarefullyrunfastcomeassoonaspossibleopenwithcare,Wehaveknownthephrasestructureis:XP(specifier)X(complement)thiskindofstructuredoesnotconsidermodifiers,soweneedtoexpandthephrasestructureas:XP(specifier)(Mod)X(complement*)(Mod)Ifaphrasehasamodifierontheleftofthehead,themodifiermustoccurbetweenthespecifierandthehead,suchasanaughtyboy,theseoldbooksIfaphrasehasamodifierontherightofthehead,itmustoccurafterthecomplement:suchasopenthedoorcarefully;eattheappleswiftly,Sentences(theSrule)wecansimplyassumethatasentencemustcontainaNPandaVP(NPandaVPcansimplybeaNandaV),asfollows:SNPVPBecauseweknowthatNPcanbe(Det)+N+(PP),andVPcanbe(Qual)+V+(NP),thesentensecanbe:SNPVP=(Det)+N+(PP)+(Qual)+V+(NP)andsoon.Thegirlinredalmostateupallthecakes.NP(Det)+N+(PP)VP(Qual)+V+(NP)AP(Deg)+A+(PP)PP(Deg)+P+(NP),Sentences(theSrule),SNPVP,S,NP,VP,NP,DetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence,SNPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection(dubbedInfl)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentencestenseandagreement.,InflP(=S),NP,VP,Infl,Sentences(theSrule),Thatisinasentense,thereisalsoahead,theinfl,theinflisbetweenthesubjectandtheverbphrase,ittakesthesubject(NP)onitsleftasitsspecifierandtheVPonitsrightasitscomplement,InflP（=S）,NP,VP,DetNPstVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence,NP,Infl,Inflrealizedbyatenselabel,InflP（=S）,NP,VP,NP,DetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidence,Inflrealizedbyanauxiliary,InflP（=S）,VP,NP,NP,DetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidence,TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)转换生成语法,ItwasproposedbyNorm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcenturyTGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.,Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferencesChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar普遍语法).,Transformations,Auxiliarymovement助动词移位(inversion倒置)Doinsertion（Do的插入）Deepstructureitcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure-correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.,Deepstructure&surfacestructure,Theorganizationofthesyntacticcomponent,TheXPrule,Deepstructure,transformations,Surfacestructure,Subcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplements,Wh-movement,Considerthederivation:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.,Wh-movement,Wh-movement-Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguagecanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?,Wh-movement,Wh-movement-MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised),CP,VP,VNPwonthegame,S,NPInflePst,NPCWho,Moveandco