Cognitive+Linguistics-all认知语言学概论.ppt

CognitiveLinguistics,bungimSommersemester2004Dozentin:MonikaBednarek,M.A.,10.5.2004,OrganisatorischesGoalsofmoduleThestructureofthismoduleCourseContentCognitiveLinguistics:AnIntroduction,Organisatorisches,Email:mb399yahoo.co.ukSprechstunde:,Goalsofthismodule,ThisclassaimstointroduceyoutoCognitiveLinguistics,byexplainingandapplyingitskeyconcerns:prototypes,categories,metaphors,metonymy,andframes.Indoingso,notonlywillyougaininsightintoanewapproachtolinguistics,butyouwillalsolearnmoreabouthowhumancognitionseemstowork.(VLvz),Thestructureofthismodule,Cognitivelinguistics(CL):anintroductionPrototypesandcategoriesLevelsofcategorizationFramesFigureandgroundConceptualmetaphorsandmetonymiesOtherissuesinCL,Mostsessionswillfollowthispattern:,ShortrefreshmentoflasttimeIntroducingnewtopicsGroupactivitiesSummary,1.CognitiveLinguistics:anIntroduction,WhatisCLandwheredoesitfitin?Thetermcognitive:Cognitivemeansrelatingtothementalprocessinvolvedinknowing,learning,andunderstandingthings.(COBUILD)Inthatmanymodernlinguistsrecognizethatlanguageknowledgeresidesinthemindsofspeakerstheymightbesaidtopracticecognitivelinguistics,ChomskyanlinguisticsascognitivelinguisticsandthecognitiveturninlinguisticsSyntacticStructures(Chomsky1957),AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax(Chomsky1965):grammarexistsinspeakersminds;innateUG;languageasautonomouscomponentofthemind:knowledgeoflanguageformsanautonomousmodule/facultyindependentofothermentalprocessesCognitiveLinguistics:definitionsanddescriptions,Adescriptivelabelforaratherbroadmovementwithinmodernlinguistics.Itincludesavarietyofapproaches,methodologies,andemphases,whichare,however,unifiedbyanumberofcommonassumptions.Foremostamongtheseisthebeliefthatlanguageformsanintegralpartofhumancognition,andthatanyinsightfulanalysisoflinguisticphenomenawillneedtobeembeddedinwhatisknownabouthumancognitiveabilities.“(Taylor2002:3f.),Cognitivelinguisticsisanapproachtolanguagethatisbasedonourexperienceoftheworldandthewayweperceiveandconceptualizeit.“(Ungererhowlanguageisrepresentedintheneuronalstructure.But:“ithastoberecognizedthatneurologicalstudiesoflanguagetendtodealwithveryglobalaspectsoflanguagestructureandlanguageprocessing,notwiththenitty-grittydetailsthatarethemainpreoccupationsoflinguists.”wesimplydonotknowenoughaboutthespecifics,2.CognitiveCapacities,Categorisation:humanabilitytocreateandoperatewiththousandsofcategories(fine-grainedvs.general);flexible(modifyandcreatecategories);externalversusinternalworldandlanguage:wordsasnamesforcategories;languageasobjectofcategorization,Figure-groundorganization:e.g.visualperceptionandothersenses(sound);attentiondirectedtowardsfigure;flexible;levelsofandlanguage(Talmy,Langacker):e.g.passive-activea.Thefarmershottherabbit.b.Therabbitwasshotbythefarmer.,Mentalimageryandconstrual:wecanconstruesituationsindifferentways(figure-groundorganization,detail,perspective)andlanguage:wordingreflectsconstrual:a.Theroofslopesgentlydownwards.b.Theroofslopesgentlyupwards.,Metaphorandexperientialism:metaphorreflectscapacitytoconstrueonethingintermsofanotherandlanguage:conceptualmetaphors(Lakoff)Conceptualarchetypes:conceptualuniversalssuchasThing(spatiallyboundedphysicalobject);Event,Action,figure-groundorganization,Containment,Support,Causality,Animacyetc.andlanguage:linguisticdifferencesinentitiesdenotedbynounsetcInferencing:fillingoutofmissinglinksandlanguage:wedonotstateeverythingthatcanbestated,Automatisation:e.g.acquisitionofmotorskills(e.g.tieshoelaces,instruments)andlanguage:pre-formedchunksoflanguageNotionofentrenchment(Langacker):expressionsbecomedeeplyrootedinlanguage,Storageversuscomputation:e.g.1212(calculation)vs.1212=144(ready-made);rapid/effortlessvs.slow/laboriousandlanguage:open-choicevs.idiomprinciple(Sinclair);rule/listfallacy(Langacker):thefactthatweknowarule(e.g.pluralformation)doesnotmeantthatfrequentpluralsarestoredassuch(eyes),Focusonform:wederivepleasurefromform(abstractart;rituals)andlanguage;languageplay(Jakobsonspoeticfunction);formalcomplexitynotperceivedasburden(inflectionalmorphology),Socialbehaviour:manassocialanimalandlanguage:impulsetouselanguageinsocialinteraction,e.g.toestablishgroupidentity,Symbolicbehaviour:differencebetweenhumanbeingsandanimals;offlinethinking(past,present,future,imaginepossiblewords,alternatives,consequencesetc)andlanguage:thisofflinethinkingismadepossiblebyourcontrolofasymbolicsystem(language),Summary,CLtriestoofferaunifiedapproachtolanguageresearchRelatestheuseoflanguagetoourbasiccognitivecapacities,Activity,Thinkofeverydayexamplesoftheuseofthesecognitivecapacities,CognitiveLinguistics,Whatwedidlasttime,CL:unifiedapproachtolanguage;languageasinherentpartofcognition;Methodenpluralismus(experiments,introspection,observation)Cognitivecapacities,PrototypesandCategoriesI,Remember:Categorisationoneofthecognitivecapacities:humanabilitytocreateandoperatewiththousandsofcategories(fine-grainedvs.general);flexible(modifyandcreatecategories);externalversusinternalworldHowdowecategorisetheworld?,Book,house,peoplevs.vagueentities:knees(thigh),trunk(treetop),valley(slope/mountain),rain(drizzle),However:boundariesexistinrealityButwhataboutlength,width,height,temperature,colours(scales):nonaturaldivisionse.g.betweencold,warm,hotclassificationasamentalprocesscalledcategorization,Cognitivecategories/conceptsasproductPrinciplesofcategorization:arbitraryornot?Thecaseforarbitrariness:(1)colourtermsdifferbetweenlanguages(braun-brun,marron,jaune);(2)supportsSapir-WhorfhypothesisThecasefornon-arbitrariness:focalcolours(Berlintheyhaveprototypes,goodexamples,andbad(marginal)members/examplesBoundaries?,MaxBlackschairmuseum:“aseriesofchairsdifferinginqualitybyleastnoticeableamounts.Atoneendofalongline,containingperhapsthousandsofexhibits,mightbeaChippendalechair:attheother,asmallnondescriptlumpofwood.Anynormalobserverinspectingtheseriesfindsextremedifficultyindrawingthelinebetweenchairandnon-chair.”(Black1959:32),Labovsresearch:cupsandbowlsandcontext-dependence(handout):fringeareasbetweenadjacentcategories(fuzzycategoryboundaries)Vaguenessversusfuzziness:mountain(slope)versusMOUNTAIN(HILL),Summary,Categorizationisbasedonthecognitivecapacitiesofthehumanmindconcreteentitiesandnaturalphenomenaareconceptuallystructuredasprototypecategories,withfuzzyboundariesandgoodandbadexamples(typicalityscale)Noone-to-onerelationbetweencategories/conceptsandwords(polysemy),Activity,Withyourneighbour,listbasiccolourtermsinEnglish/German.Alsolistsomenon-basiccolourterms.Thinkaboutwhenyouwoulduseoneortheother.Aretheretheyallknowntobothofyou?Whataretheirrestrictions?Lookingaroundtheroom/outsidethewindow:whichentitiesarevaguewhicharent?Listtwovagueandboundedentities.Whatabouttheircategoryboundaries?,PrototypesandCategoriesII,Whatistheinternalstructureofcategories?,Activity,lookupthedictionarydefinitionsfortypesofdogs(Alsatian,bulldog,dachshund,terrier,guidedog,gundog,sheepdog).Whatpropertiesarelisted?,Shared(implied)properties:four-leggedmammal,fur,tail,earsCategoryattributesTheclassicaltheory(Aristotle):AristotlemadeadistinctionbetweentheEssenzandtheAkzidenzofacategory.Acategoryisdefinedbyitsessentialfeatures(thesearenecessaryandsufficientconditions(two-leggedfeatherless=human)PrototypetheoryandWittgensteinsnotionoffamilyresemblances(Handout),“eachitemhasatleastone,andprobablyseveral,elementsincommonwithoneormoreotheritems,butno,orfew,elementsarecommontoallitems.”(RoschandMervis1975:575)Importanttogreater(superordinatecategories)andlesserdegrees(BIRD:bundleofbirdinessfeaturessharedbyall;thesefeaturesarecognitivelysalient(cuevalidity)(handout),Attributesandprototypes(RoschandMervis,1975):(1)prototypeshavethemostattributesincommonwithothercategorymembersandtheleastattributesincommonwithcategorymembersofanadjacentcategory;(2)badexampleshavetheleastattributesincommonwithothercategorymembersandshareseveralattributeswithcategorymembersofadjacentcategories.Summary(Handout),CognitiveLinguistics,Whatwedidlasttime:,Categorisation:colourperception:arbitraryoruniversal?(focalcoloursnaturalprototypes)prototypes,goodexamples,badexamples,fuzzycategoryboundaries(fuzzinessvs.vagueness),familiyresemblances,attributes,“WelchesistdergrteVogel?”,fragtLuis.DerAdler“,sageich.Nein,derKondoristgrer.“DergrteVogelistderStrau“,murmeltPaolaunterderBettdecke.AberderStraukannnichtfliegen“,sageich.EinVogel,dernichtfliegenkann,istkeinrichtigerVogel.“Seitwannentscheidestdu,waseinrichtigerVogelist“,sagtPaolaundrichtetsichauf.(DasBesteausmeinemLeben“,AxelHackeimSZMagazinNo.21,23.5.2003),Levelsofcategorization,Remember:familyresemblanceshavedifferentvalidityinsuperordinateandothercategoriesCategoriesexistondifferentlevelsofgenerality:=thenotionofclassinclusion:thesuperordinateclassincludesallitemsonthesubordinatelevel“UBULLDOG=subordinate,A.Basiclevelcategories,DOG,CAT,BIRDEverydayuseofcategorynames:Howdoyourefertoentitiesintheworld(objects,personsetc?)whenyouintroducethem?A.TwocarscrashedintoeachotherB.?TwovehiclescrashedintoeachotherC.?AMercedesandajeepcrashedintoeachother,Preferredinneutralcontexts,firstacquiredbychildren,simplemorphology,usedmostfrequentlyResearchintofolktaxonomiessuggestsaprimacyofsuchgeneric“orbasic“(middle)levelcategories(DOG,CAT,BIRD)Possiblereasons:cultural(orbiological)significance;focusofhumaninterest,Psychologicalresearch:Atbasiclevelthemostobviousdifferencescanbeperceived(toomanysimilaritiesbetweenkindsofdogs;toofewsimilaritieswithinsuperordinatecategorymammal;rightamountofdifferencebetweendogsandcats)Atthebasiclevelthemostinformationcanbeobtainedwiththeleastcognitiveeffort(principleofcognitiveeconomy)Characteristicshapeofmembersofbasiclevelcategoriesandcharacteristicinteractionswiththem,Prototypecategoriesandthebasiclevel:Prototypecategoriesaremostfullydevelopedonthebasiclevelanidealprototypestructurecanonlybefoundonthebasiclevel“(Uwhenaskedaboutfeatures/attributesyougivefeaturesoftheseexamples(parasiticcategorisation).,FamilyresemblancesRevisited:,Veryimportantinsuperordinatecategories:whatholdsthemtogether:sometimesonly1category-wideattribute(TOY:usedtoplaywith)ornone(WittgensteinsGAME).chaincategoriesNon-basicstatusreflectedlinguistically:notone-syllabic;acquiredafterbasiclevelcategoriesScientific(logical)vs.experientialhierarchies:,folktaxonomiesarefullofgapsandalternatives(dependingoncognitiveneedsofuser),C.SubordinateCategories,POODLE,TERRIER,ROSEUsedwhenwewanttobespecificIsthereaprototypicalROBIN,DIME,QUARTER?Parasiticorganisation:wecannamealotofattributesbutmostaresharedandbelongtobasiclevel(thosethatarenot,veryspecific,versusgeneralonesofsuperordinatecategories)CompareFigure2.9and2.5(handout),Subordinatecategoriesareoftenexpressedbycomplexforms:compounds(blackbird,wheelchair)orsyntacticgroups(blackhair)attributesofcompoundderivedfrombothsourcecategoriestodifferentdegrees;otherattributesarenotborrowedfromeither(wheelchair:invalid,hospital)butarebasedonworldknowledge,Subordinatecategoriescanbecomebasiclevelcategoriesthemselves(newspaper)oftendropfirstelement(paper)Evensomeapparentlysimplewordsareetymologicallyderivedfromtwosourcecategories(opaque):DaisydayseyeDandeliondentdelion(fr)Summary:handout,Activity,Establishahierarchyforadomainofexperienceyourefamiliarwith(superordinatecategory;basiclevelandsubordinatecategories),BythewayHyponymyandHyperonymy),Hyponymie:“einWortbzw.eineReihevonLexemen(z.B.rose,tulip,daisy,lily)stehtineinemUnterordungsverhltniszueinemallgemeineremAusdruck(flower)”(Kortmann1999:168)Intension:Hyponymcomprisesallattributesofhyperonym(comparetypesofdog)Extension:Hyperonymincludeshyponyms(canbeusedtorefertoallhyponyms),Activity,Comparetheamountofbasiclevelwordsandsuperordinatewordsinthetwotextsonyourhandout,D.TypesofBasicLevelCategories,Sofar:objects(CHAIR)andorganisms(DOG)Others:actionstativecategorymembershavethesamemembershipstatus;categoryboundariesareclear-cutandfixed,Prototypetheory,acategoryisNOTdefinedbynecessaryandsufficientfeatures;categoriesgettheirstructurebyreferencetotheprototypeand/orbyfamilyresemblancesbetweentheirmembers;categorymembersdonothavethesamemembershipstatus:goodexamples,prototypes,badexamples;categoryboundariesarefuzzy,Prototypetheory,differenttypesofcategories:prototypecategoriesvs.familyresemblancecategories/subordinatebasiclevelsuperordinatecategories/objects,organisms,actions,events,stativegivesnoevidence;doesnotexplainframestructureinmoredetail;whatexactlyarethetoplevels,forinstance?theschemesproposedhereinareincompleteinmanyrespects.First,Ioftenproposerepresentationswithoutspecifyingtheprocessesthatwillusethem.SometimesIonlydescribepropertiesthestructuresshouldexhibit.Italkaboutmarkersandassignmentsasthoughitwereobvioushowtheyareattachedandlinked;itisnot(Minsky1975:213).,FrameTheoryinLinguistics,Fillmore:Frame-semantics(Handout)“Aframesemanticsoutlookemphasizesthecontinuities,ratherthanthediscontinuities,betweenlanguageandexperience.”(Fillmore1982:111),“AnAlternativetoChecklistTheoriesofMeaning”(Fillmore1975:123)(i.e.analternativetotheideathatthemeaningofawordcanbedescribedintermsofitssemanticfeatureslikeHUMAN,MALE,ADULT,asinstructurallinguistics),Fillmore:wordsrepresentcategorisationsofexperience,andeachofthesecategoriesisgroundedina(prototypebackground)frameexplainingthereasonfortheexistenceofthesecategories(cf.Fillmore1982:112).,Example:anorphan=achildwhoseparentsaredead.Categoryismotivatedagainstaparticularcognitiveframe(prototypicalbackgroundworld),wherechildrendependontheirparents,parentscarefortheirchildren,andapersonwithoutparentshasaspecialsocialstatusuptoacertainage,becauseuntilthen,societymustprovideforthem,Aframeis“bestunderstoodasaprototyperatherthanasagenuinebodyofassumptionsaboutwhattheworldislike”(Fillmore1982:118).Useofwordorphanshouldalsoevokethisprototypicalframeassociatedwithitsuse.alinguisticexpressionevokesaframealinguisticexpressionsituatesaparticularthinginaframealinguisticexpressionschematisestheworld:fromshoretoshore=tripacrosswater;fromcoasttocoast=tripacrossland;land(surfaceofearthasdistinctfromsea);ground(surfaceofearthasdistinctfromtheairaboveit),Differentlinguisticexpressionscanevokethesameframe,butfromadifferentperspective.E.g.converseverbs.Please-like,come-go,buy,selletc.Example:FillmoresCOMMERCIALEVENTframe(e.g.backgroundofBUY):Ahasmoney;Bhasgoods.AgivesmoneytoB,BgivesgoodstoA.Ahasgoods,Bhasmoney.FourcategoriesareconnectedtoBUY:BUYER,SELLER,GOODS,MONEY(theseandtheirinterrelationsmakeupCOMMERCIALEVENTframe),Activity,WhichaspectsoftheCOMMERCIALEVENTframearehighlightedbyusing(1)buy(2)sell(3)charges.o.amountofmoneyfor(4)payamountofmoneytos.o.for,DavidboughtanoldshirtfromJohnfortenpoundsfocusonBUYER,GOODSJohnsoldanoldshirttoDavidfortenpoundsfocusonSELLER,GOODSJohnchargedDavidtenpoundsforanoldshirtfocusonSELLER,BUYERDavidpaidtenpoundstoJohnforanoldshirtfocusonBUYER,MONEYThedifferenceisachangeofperspectivewithinthesameframe,Relatednotions(withinAIandlinguistics):,Scripts:Ascriptisapredetermined,stereotypedsequenceofactionsthatdefinesawell-knownsituation.(SchankOBJECTframe,PERSONframe,etcFolkframesandexpertframes(alternativeterms:Expertenwissenvs.Laienwissen/Alltagswissen(Schwarze1981,Heringer1999),navemodels(Ucategoriesaregroundedincomplexframesconsiderframesasbackgroundstructuresagainstwhichthemeaningofwordsarestructured(Fillmoresoriginalidea),whenweproduceorlistentolanguageweunconsciouslyfillinanincredibleamountofinformationtakenfromframesandscripts“(Uevidenceforthefactthatthisspeaker(anAmerican)expectsroadstobepaved.Definitearticle(seeabove),FrameTheoryinCognitiveLinguistics,Lakoffsidealizedcognitivemodels(ICMs):“Themainthesisofthisbookisthatweorganizeourknowledgebymeansofstructurescalledidealizedcognitivemodels,orICMs,andthatcategorystructuresandprototypeeffectsareby-productsofthatorganization”(Lakoff1987:68).,Example:TuesdayICM:naturalcycle(sunmoving),standardmeansofmeasuringtime,seven-daycycle(week).Week=awholewith7partsinlinearsequence;eachiscalledaday,thirdisTuesday.Thismodelisidealized:7-day-weeksdonotexistobjectivelyinnature,createdbyus(othercultureshavedifferentkindsofweeks).ICMsaremorecomplexthanframesbutcanalsoconsistofcategories.Thisgivesrisetoprototypeeffects,Example:bachelorICM:humansocietywith(typicallymonogamous)marriage,atypicalmarriageableage.Nothinginitaboutpriests,un-marriedcouples,homosexualityetc.WithrespecttothisICM,abachelor=unmarriedadultman.ThisICMisoversimplified:itdoesnotapplytothepopeprototypicaldogretriever)Shetookherdogtothesalontohaveitscurlsreset(SALONmodel;prototypicaldogpoodle)Theratingsofprototypesgiveninexperimentsdependonadefaultmodelorzero-contextAlternativeterm:culturalmodel(shared,culture-bound)E.g.differentculturalmodelsforFIRSTMEALOFTHEDAY(Englishbreakfast,petitdjeuner),CognitiveLinguistics,Evaluation,Criticismimagesallowfigure-groundreversal(unusual)factors,ThePrincipleofPrgnanz,NotioncoinedinGestalt“PsychologyReferstoclear-cutorganizationintermsofTheprincipleofproximity:elementsneareachotherareperceivedasrelatedTheprincipleofsimilarity:similarelementsareperceivedasonecommonsegmentTheprincipleofclosure:perceptionisanchoredinclosedfiguresTheprincipleofcontinuation:elementsareperceivedaswholesiftheyarenotinterrupted,Thepadisonthetable,therelationshipbetweenfigureandgroundcanbeseenintermsoflocativerelations(prepositions)locativeprepositionscanbeexplainedintermsoffigureandground,PrepositionalanalysisincognitivelinguisticsI,Remember:locativerelations(OVER,UNDER,UP,DOWN,IN,OUT)regardedasimageschemas(basiccognitivestructureswhicharederivedfromoureverydayinteractionwiththeworld“(Ulandmark=groundtrajector/landmarkasbasisforanalysisofvariousprepositionalmeanings,e.g.out,up,(Central)IMAGE-schemasOUT/UP,HandoutLocativerelations(prepositions)canbeanalysedintermsofimageschemaswhichconsistofatrajector,alandmarkandaPATH.,Elaborations,VariationsofcentralschemaAccountforspecificmeanings(polysemy),linkedbysimilaritytocentralschemahandoutMetaphoricalextensions(Shehasastrangepoweroverme),Acti