简明语言学整理笔记

第一章1.linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language2The scope of linguisticsPhonetics-语音学 phonology-音系学 morphology-形态学 syntax-句法学 semantics-语义学 pragmatics-语用学从语言形式划分：Sociolinguistics社会语言学，psycholinguistics心理语言学，applied linguistics应用语言学3. Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive & prescriptive 规定性&描写性Synchronic & diachronic 共时性&历时性Speech& writing 口语&书写Langue & parole 语言&言语Competence &language fact )Traditional grammer & modern linguistics 4.What is language?Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication5.Design features of language 语言的识别特征 Charles HockettArbitrariness(任意性)refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)Productivity/creativity(能产性）:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users Duality（双重性）:The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. Displacement(移位性):Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication. Cultural transmission（文化传承性）人独有。动物为基因传承6.Functions of languageMain function：Descreptive function 描述功能，expressive function表达功能，social function社会功能6 basic function （Roman Jakobson）addresser-Emotive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speakeraddressee-Conative（意动功能） Context-referential（指称功能）.message-poetic（诗性功能）. contact-Phatic communion(寒暄交流) Metalingual function(元语言功能): Halliday child language： the ideational 概念功能，the interpersonal交际功能，the textual语篇功能第二章Phology语音学Three branches：articulatory phonetics 发音语言学，auditory phonetics 听觉语音学，acoustic phonetics声学语音学。Organs of speech：pharyngeal cavity咽腔:voiced浊辅音，voiceless清辅音 oral cavity口腔，nasal cavity鼻腔。Broad&narrow transcription classification of english speech sound： phonology音系学名词解释Phonetics语音学 is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classifiedPhonology 音系学aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns, and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. A phone音素- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme音位- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in peak and speak.Allophones音位变体 - the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments. (complementary distribution互补分布) e.g. the phoneme l in English can be realized as dark l, clear l, which are allophones of the phoneme l. Phonemic contrast音位对立-two different or distinctive phonemes are in phonemic contrast, e.g./b/ and /p/ in bIt and pIt.Complementary distribution互补分布-allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts, e.g. dark l & clear l, aspirated p & unaspirated p.Minimal pair最小对立体- when two different forms are identical (the same) in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair, e.g. Some rules in phonelogySequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则Suprasegmental features超音段特征stress ，tone，intonation第三章Morphology（形态学）: refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with formation and word structure.Closed class words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns consist of the “grammatical” or “functional” words.Words - the smallest free form found in language. Morpheme - the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Phoneme音位 : the smallest meaningful unit of sound: /p, b/Morpheme词素 : the smallest meaningful unit in grammar: -s, a-, -less un-Free morpheme自由词素-is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itselfBound morpheme黏着词素-is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselvesAllomorph词素变体 - morphemes may have different forms. (:a and an.) The variant forms of a morpheme are said to be the allomorphs of the morphemeRoot - the core of the words that carries the major components of meaning. Affix - bound morphemes. Prefix - morphemes that occur only before othersSuffix - morphemes that occur only after othersRoot-A root is that part of the word left when all the affixes (inflectional & derivational) are removedStem-A stem is part of a word-form which remains when all inflectional affixes have been removed,Base-A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added. This means any stem and root can be termed as a base.Derivational morphemes派生词素 - the morphemes which can change the category, or grammatical class of wordsInflectional morphemes屈折词素- the bound morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on, (tables, talked, Johns)morphological rules- the ways words are formed. productive morphological rules 能产性词法规则Derivation(派生法) - an affixation process that forms a word with a meaning and/ or category from that of its bases.Compounds(合成法)第四章Syntax（句法）- the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Category（范畴）- refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular languagesyntactic categories -A fundamental fact about words in human languages is that they can be grouped into a relative small number. The most central categories to the syntactic study are the word-level categories (traditionally, parts of speech)Major lexical categories主要词法范畴: n., v., adj., Prep.Minor Lexical categories次要词法范畴: det.(a,the,), deg.(修饰介词，形容词so,very), Qual.(修饰动词often，almost), Aux(must, should), Conj.(and, but ,or )Three criteria on which categories are determined: meaning, inflection and distribution.Phrase - the syntactic units that are built around a certain word category.The structure of phrases: specifier标志语 + head 中心词 + complement 补语Head- the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier- the words on the left side of the headsComplement- the words on the right side of the headsA phrase structure rule短语结构规则- The grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase1) The XP rule XP规则(specifier )X( complement)2) Coordination rule 并列规则- the structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction.XP (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod) Modifiers 修饰语S NP VPInfl is an abstract category inflection (dubbed Infl) as their heads, which indicates the sentences tense（时态） and agreement（一致）.( Infl. -will, Pst).Auxiliary movement (inversion) -A transformation, a special type of rule that can move an element from one position to another, which is known as inversion倒置.The auxililary moves from the head Infl position in Infl P into the head C position in CP. Such type of inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another is known as head movement中心词移位.Do insertion （do插入）- Insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.第五章 semantics语义学Semantics-the study of language meaning.What is meaning? Meaning is central to the study of communication.Some views：Naming theory (Plato)- Words are names or labels for things.The conceptualist view（Ogden and Richards: semantic triangle）The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);The referent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.Contextualism （JR Firth）1. Situational context场景语境: spatiotemporal 时空的 situation2. Linguistic context: co-text互文，the probability of a words co-occurrence or collocation.Behaviorism（Bloomfield）Lexical meaning：名词解释Sense- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in. Reference-what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. Major sense relations 1) Synonymy同义关系 ：Dialectal synonyms方言同义词，Stylistic synonyms-文体同义词，differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning: the same meaning but different emotions:， Collocational synonyms搭配同义词，Semantically different synonyms,语义程度不同2) Polysemy一词多义3) Homonymy 同形同音异义关系4) Hyponymy 上下位关系5） Antonymy 反义关系：Gradable antonyms等级反义词old-young， Complementary antonyms互补反义词 male-female，Relational opposites 关系反义词wife-husbandSense relations between sentences 1) X is synonymous with Y同义2) X is inconsistent with Y 不一致3) X entails Y 蕴含4) X presupposes Y 预设5) X is a contradiction矛盾6) X is semantically anomalous 语义反常Analysis of meaning Componential analysis 成分分析法Man: +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEBoy: +HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALEPredication analysis 述谓结构分析法 （G-leech）The tree grows well. TREE (GROW)The kids like apples. KIDS， APPLE (LIKE) 第六章Pragmatics(语用学)- the study of the use of context to make inference about meaning. Whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics（语用，言外之意，考虑语境，具体意义）. If not, the study is restricted to the traditionally semantics（语义，言内之音）.Context(语境) - generally considered as constituted knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer(background, relationship). John FirthSentence meaning -the abstract, decontextualized, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication.Utterance meaning-based on sentence meaning; it is concrete and context-dependent; the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or in a context.Speech Act Theory was proposed by John Austin and further developed by John Searle.speech acts - language is not only used to inform or to describe things but to “do things”, to perform acts. Actions performed through utterances .According to Austin, sentences can be subdivided into two categories.a. Constatives (叙事话语) : statements that either state or describe, and are thus verifiable.（a proposition ，a statement）b. Performatives（行为话语）: sentences that do not state a fact or describe a state, and are not verifiable.( a proposition ，a promise)Austins new model of speech acts-According to Austins new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act（言内行为，以言指事）, illocutionary act（言外行为，以言行事） and perlocutionary act（言后行为，以言成事）.The locutionary act-an act of saying somethingThe illocutionary act-an act performed in saying something: in saying X, I was doing Y (the intention of the speaker while speaking). The perlocutionary act-an act performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.This seemingly incoherent conversation goes on successfully because the speakers understand each others illocutionary acts： Searles classification of speech acts (1969) Assertives/representatives（阐述类） - Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be trueDirectives（指示类） - Trying to get the hearer to do somethingCommissives（承诺类）- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionExpressives（表达类）-Expressing the speakers psychological state about something，Declarations（宣告类）-Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairsPrinciple of conversation (Paul Grice) Cooperative principle (CP)- According to Grice, in making conversation, there is a general principle which all participants are expected to observe. It goes as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. (在言语产生作出表述时，要使该表述符合此阶段话语交流所接受的目的或方向要求)That is, we assume that in a conversation the participants will cooperate with each other when making their contributions. The principle is illustrated with its four maxims:Four maxims of CP（Paul Grice）a) The maxim of quality（足够多信息）b) The maxim of quantity（真假）c) The maxim of relation（联系）d) The maxim of manner（艰涩，歧义）第七章 Language change Addition of new words1. Coinage（创新词）taikonaut2. Clipped words ：gym3. Blending：smog：smoke+fog4. Acronyms：CEO5. Back-formation：to beg（begger）6. Functional shift：to knee/ n.v.7. Borrowing借词Semantic changes(1) Semantic broadening：Holiday(2) Semantic Narrowing：meat(3) Semantic shift：silly第八章 Language and societyVarieties of language语言变体Dialectal varieties: Regional /Social Personal varieties : registersSituatinal varieties: degree of formalityLanguage and gender：because men control public life in most cultures, men often control the standard language, which then becomes biased towards men.Language and age，Idiolect(个人语言) ethnic dialectRegister语域（Halliday）field of discourse语场, tenor of discourse语旨, and mode of discourse语式. Field of discourse refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose and subject-matter of communication. It answers the questions of why and about what communication takes place. Tenor of discourse refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand