英语论文写作--主体段落写作.ppt

主体段落拓展,主体段落的结构,开头段（文章总论点）主体段分论点1+拓展句a+拓展句b+.分论点2+拓展句c+拓展句d+.分论点3+拓展句e+拓展句f+.结尾段,分论点句,1)Incompletesentences2)Shouldnotbeaquestion3)Shouldnotcontainphraseslike“Ithink”,“Inmyopinion”,etc.,扩展句,一个段落是由分论点句和扩展句共同构成的。扩展句是对分论点句的延伸或证明。它们之间的关系构成一个段落好坏的关键。扩展句和分论点之间至少要注意：第一，意义的一致性相关性(unity）第二，逻辑的连贯性(coherence)。,注意,所谓的意义的一致性指的是所有的扩展句都必须是分论点的延伸或者证明，它对主题句能起到支持的作用。否则，这样的扩展句就应当删除掉。但是只有内容上的一致性还不足以保证能写出一个好的段落。在行文过程中作者还要注意各个句子的正确、紧凑安排，也就是要保证意义的连贯性。,拓展过程中经常出现的问题：,而在意义的连贯上，主要毛病是信笔游走，行文没有规矩，或者没有必要的过渡词。在内容的一致性上，容易犯的错误主要有：1）跑题/岔题；2）重复；3）片面；,1、跑题,Thereportindicatesthatbabiesoffatherswhosmokearelikelytobesmallerandweakerthanbabiesofnon-smokingfathers.Ofcourseitisalreadywellknownthatpregnantwomenwhosmokecandamagethehealthoftheirbabies.Mysistersmokedtwentycigarettesadaywhenshewasexpectingherfirstchild.Anotherworryingpointisthatsmokingjustbeforethestartofthepregnancycanaffectthebabylater.Iheardrecentlythatcertainfoodsharmunbornbabies.,2、岔题,Themainschoolbuildingcontainsmostoftheclassrooms.Thatwasour“secondhome”,theplacewheremyclassmatesandIworked,studied,andlearnedforthreeyears.Beyondthatisthesciencebuilding.Thatswherewedidallourlaboratoryworkforchemistryandphysics.Ontherightsideofsciencebuildingisalibrary,wheretherearealargecollectionofbooksandperiodicalsforustoread.Sinceourteacherswererichinknowledgeandtaughtusveryearnestly,wehadalwaysdonebetterthanstudentsofotherschoolsinjointexaminations.,3、重复,WatchingTVtoomuchisharmfultoyoureyes.IfyoustayinfrontofTVfortoolongtimeyoureyesmightgethurt.Youwillbenear-sighted.Youcannotseeclearlywhenyouread.Youevencannotseeclearlyafriendwhenyoumeethiminstreet.,4、片面,OurschoolisanArmyschool,sowemustobeymanyrules.Becauseofthis，myhouseisspecialinsomeways.First,ourhouseisveryclean,havenopieceofpaperontheground.Everythinginmyhouseisneat.Perhapssomeotherhouseisdirty,butifmyhouseisdirtywewouldbepunishedandforcedtocleanit.,拓展的主要方法：,一、列举法（Listing）二、举例法（Exemplification）三、分类法（Classification）四、比较对照法（ComparisonandContrast）五、因果法（CauseandEffect）,列举法（Listing）,也叫枚举法。是一种在主题句中提出论点，然后列举一系列论据或原因对主题进行论证或阐述的方法。列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间顺序等进行。,列举法作文例子,Togetthemostoutofyourtextbookyoushouldfollowseveralstepsverycarefully.First,youshouldmakeapreliminarysurveyofeachbooktogetageneralideaofwhatthebookcontains.Second,youshouldreadfordeeperunderstandingandformulatequestionsasyouread.Next,makenotesofthemajorpointofeachchapter.Then,testyourselftobesurethatyoucananswerquestionslikelytoberaisedinclassorinexaminations.Finally,reviewyournotesandrereadanypartsofthebookthatareuncleartoyou.,常用于列举法的过渡连接词,first,second,third,etc.;inthefirstplace,inthesecondplace;firstofall,firstandforemost;tobeginwith,tostartwith;foronething,foranother;also,besides,furthermore,moreover,inaddition,whatismore;aboveall;next;beyondthat;initially;eventually,lastbutnotleast.,举例法（Exemplification）,作者通过举出具体事例来阐述、说明主题句的内容。严格地讲，举例法也是列举法的一种，它们的区别在于：列举法侧重罗列事实，所列事实力求全面；而举例法侧重通过举出典型事例来解释作者的观点，且事例可多可少。,举例法作文例子,Therearemanydifferentformsofexercisestosuitdifferenttastes.Forexample,thosewhoenjoycompetitivesportsmaytakeupballgames.Foranotherexample,iftheyprefertoexercisealone,theycanhavearunortakeawalkinthemorningorintheevening.Besides,peoplecangoswimminginthesummerandgoskatinginthewinter.Inshort,nomatterwhattheirinterestsare,peoplecanalwaysfindmorethanonesportthatissuitabletothem.,方法1：举例+结果/影响,Asedentary（久坐的，静态的）lifestylemayleadtosomephysicalhazards.（分论点）EvidenceshowsthatinShanghaiover30percentteenagersaresufferingfromobesityornear-sightedness.（举例）Hence,theirfurtherstudiesorfuturecareersmightbenegativelyaffected.（结果）,Childrenexposedtotoomuchscreentimewouldshowsignsofsevereaddictionorlong-lastingisolation.（分论点）Forinstance,manyTVprogramslikecartoonsorcomediesoftenprovidelaughterandjoyforthekidswhilemostvideogamesportrayvirtualstoriesfullofadventureandfantasy.（举例）Asaresult,someteenagersmaybecomeunwillingtoengageinanyhealthyoutdooractivities.（影响）,方法1：举例+结果/影响,举例法中常见的过渡性词语,forexample,forinstance,asanexample,asanillustration,suchas/such,acaseinpointis,toillustrate,inparticular,specifically,say,next,namely,thatis,like,takeasanexample,etc.,病例分析,PopulationcontrolisafundamentalpolicyinChina.Ifthecountryisovercrowdedtoomuch,thegovernmenthastospendmoremoneythantheycanaffordtosupportthem;Overcrowded,thecountrymayseekmorelandtosupportitspeople,thereforeitmaywanttohaveawaragainstothercountry.,病例分析,EnvironmentPollutionmustbecurbedforthebenefitofpeople.IhavetraveledthroughhalfofChinafromsouthtonorth,IfoundthatIcannotseeaclearriverorlake.WhenIlookedupinthesky,Ifounditscolorwasnotblueatall,itisgray!Wehavelostthebeautifulglobeforever,Ithought.SoIthinkwehavetotakesomemeasurestofightpollution.,分类法（Classification）,在阐述某一概念的段落中，常用分类法。通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类地叙述，使读者有更为清晰的认识。,分类法作文例子,Generally,theexpressionofthoughtsandfeelingshasbeenintheformoforalspeech.Whenthereisalanguagebarrier,communicationisaccomplishedthroughsignlanguageinwhichmotionsstandforletters,wordsandideas.Touristsandthepeopleunabletohearorspeakhavehadtoresorttothisformofexpression.Manyofthesesymbolsofwholewordsareveryvividandexactandcanbeusedinternationally;spelling,however,cannot.,Bodylanguagetransmitsideasorthoughtsbycertainactions,eitherintentionallyorunintentionally.Anodsignifiesapproval,whileshakingtheheadindicatesanegativereaction.Otherformsoflanguagecanbefoundinsignalflags,Morsecodeandpicturesigns.,常见的用以分类的词语,动词：sort(into),divide(into),classify,group,fallinto,etc.名词：sorts,classes,groups,categories,types,kinds,aspects,etc.,比较对照法（ComparisonandContrast）定义,比较对照法由比较和对照两部分组成，但两者往往一起用以阐述两者或者更多事物间的异同，常用于说明文和议论文写作。比较描述的是所比对象的相同、类似点，而对照则强调所描述对象之间的不同，甚至相反之处。常用的比较对照的结构模式有两种，即整块比较法和逐点比较法。在整块比较法中先集中描述A，再集中描述B。其模式为：A1、A2、A3B1、B2、B3,Example:,Computershavebothfavorableandunfavorableaspects.First,computerscancalculate.Theycanmakeworkmoreefficientfortheyhaveahighspeedofcalculation.Besides,peoplecancommunicatewitheachotherbyE-mail,whichcostspeoplelessmoneyandlesstime.Mostimportantofall,computerscreatewidecommunicationaroundtheworld.PeoplecancommunicatewitheachotherviatheInternet.Theycanmakefriendsallovertheworld.,Buteverycoinhadtwosides.Thenegativeaspectsarealsoapparent.Tobeginwith,sincecomputerscandoalotofworkforus,suchascalculation,wemayrelytoomuchonthenandbecomelazierandlazier.Tomakemattersworse,althoughitisconvenientforpeopletocommunicatewitheachotherbyE-mail,theoriginalwarmrelationshipmaybecomecold,forpeoplewillhavefeweropportunitiestotalktoeachotherfacetoface.Worstofall,computerscanspreadvirusescausedbyelectronichackersresultinginalotofimportantinformationbeinglost.,Example:,逐点比较法是A、B双方同时逐点描述，其模式为：A1B1;A2B2;A3B3例如：Aproverbsays,“Likefather,likeson.”Buttheproverbdoesntseemtofitmygrandfatherandmyfatherbecausetheyhavemoredifferencesthansimilarities.,Example:,First,mygrandfatherisintroverted,whilemyfatherisextroverted.Wecaneasilyreadwhatisonmyfathersmind,butitishardtofindoutwhatmygrandfatheristhinkingabout.Next,mygrandfatherisalwaysindifferenttochildren.Heseldomtalkswithchildrenandthechildrenaresomewhatafraidofhim.Incontrast,myfatherisverywarm-heartedtochildren.Helikestotalkwiththem,sothechildreninmyfamilyalllikehim.Finally,mygrandfatherisobstinate.Oncehehadmadeadecision,heneverchangesit.However,myfather,evenafterhehasmadeadecision,willaskothersforopinions.Ifhethinkstheopinionsarereasonable,hemightchangehismind.Althoughmygrandfatherandmyfatherresembleeachotherverymuchinappearance,theydifferincharacter,thinkingandbehavior.,常见的比较对照的过渡性词语,常用的表示比较的过渡性词语有：similarly,likewise,correspondingly,inasimilarway,inthesameway,too,like,resemble,similarto,equalto,equally,important,bothand,thesameas,常用的表示对照的过渡性词语有：,ontheonehand,ontheotherhand,onthecontrary,in/bycontrast,incontrastto,insharpcontrast,conversely,otherwise,however,nevertheless,but,yet,(al)though,eventhough,whereas/while,itistruebut,instead,unlike,ratherthan,inspiteof,contrastwith,differ(ent)from,contraryto,因果法CauseandEffect,因果是写作中常用的一种段落展开方式。作者可以从原因开始得出结果，也可以从结果说起，追究原因。它常用到的过渡词有：therefore,consequently,accordingly,asaresult,hence,sothat,thus/since,because,for,dueto,forthisreason,owingto,Example:,Fundinguniversitystudentsisworthitbecauseforeverynewdollarthatthegovernmentinvestsinhighereducation,itwillreceiveanestimatednetreturnofthreedollars,translatingintomillionsofdollarsforthesociety.Thiscalculationisbasedonthesimplefactthateducatedworkersnormallymakehigherwagesthanuneducatedworkers,thereforeresultinginincreasedincomeintaxrevenues.,Example:,Somepeoplethinkthatenvironmentalproblemsaretoobigforindividualstodealwith.Others,however,thinkthateachindividualshouldtakesomeactions.Discussbothviewsandgiveyourownopinion.,Thereare,however,obstaclesthatstandinthewayofindividualactiontowardsenvironmentalconservation.,Thefirstobstacleisthelackofprofessionalknowledgeneededtocopewithseriousenvironmentalissues.Thisisbecausesomeoftheseproblemsaretoobigforordinarypeopletohandle.Forinstance,issueslikesoilerosionandsalinityrequireasignificantamountofinvestigationandresearch.,Thefirstobstacleisthelackofprofessionalknowledgeneededtocopewithseriousenvironmentalissuessuchassoilerosionandsalinitythatrequireasignificantamountofinvestigationandresearch.,Anotherobstaclewhichmakesindividualactionalmostimpossibleiswhenanenvironmentalemergencyoraccidenthappens,e.g.anoilspillneartheborderline,whichwouldnecessitategovernmentinterventionoreveninternationalcoordination.,病例分析,Childrenarebecomingclevererandclevererbecauseoftelevision（分论点）.IoftenfindtheneighborchildrensaysomeadultwordswhichareoftenheardfromTV.IonceheardaboyoffivesaytoagirlofaboutfourthatitwasnoteasyformetosaythatIloveyou.Childrenarereallygrowingfasterthaneverbefore.,病例分析,Inrecentyearsthecrimerateisgettinghigherandhigherandthereason,accordingtome,isthatmanisgettingmeanerandmeaner.Somepeoplesaythatmanisnotashonestasbefore,andIthinkthatisright.Iftheyarenothonest,theywilldosomethingwrong,andthatwouldcausethecrimeraterisetoahighlevel.,结尾段,结尾段概述常用的结尾段的表达方法结尾段常用的的核心句型,结尾段概述,开头和结尾往往是读者注意最多的部分。开头引起读者注意，提出主题；结尾与开头呼应，使读者感觉全文论述完整，圆满结束。从某种意义上来说，结尾更容易给读者留下深刻印象。人们常把好的文章结尾称作是“画龙点睛”，可见结尾部分对整篇文章所起的作用。,常用的结尾段的表达方法,总结归纳重申主题预测展望,提出建议提出问题引用格言,总结归纳,简要总结归纳文章要点以便深化主题印象。InconclusionIwouldliketosaythatchildrenneedtobeunderstoodbutchildrenalsoneedtounderstandtheirparents.Itisonlywhenparentsandchildrencometounderstandeachotherthatwecansolveproblemseffectivelyandnarrowthegenerationgap.分析：文章通过inconclusion引出对前面所作论述的归纳，使主题更加明确。,重申主题,再次强调和确定文章开头阐述的中心思想。如：Admittedly,sciencehascreatedatomicbombsandproducedpervasivepollution.Butithastransformedthelivesofmillionsofpeople.Ithasmultipliedmansenergy,hopes,ambitionsandunderstanding.Ithaselevatedandwillcontinuetoelevatemanintellectuallyandspiritually.分析：文章对前文的观点进行了重复，使之更加鲜明。,预测展望,立足当前，放眼未来。如：Sotosumup,weshouldoff