英语段落写作方法与技巧 (1).ppt

,.段落的主题与主题句,II.段落的扩展,III.段落的结尾,Paragraph,TheStructureofaParagraph,.段落的主题与主题句,1.段落的主题,2.段落的主题句,Back,Paragraph,1.段落的主题,通常一篇文章只有一个中心思想，这个中心思想可以分为几个主题，每个主题由一个段落来完成。段落的组成通常包含三个要素：主题句(topicsentence)、扩展句(supportingsentence)和结尾句(concludingsentence)。,Back,Paragraph,.段落的主题与主题句,一个段落只表达一个主题思想（主题句）,一个段落内的其它句子（扩展句）必须从属于这一思想，一个段落通常还有一个结尾局与主题句相呼应，这就是段落的统一性(TheUnityofaParagraph)。不同的主题思想应放在不同的段落中表达，否则容易枝杈横生，使人不得要领。,Paragraph,Back,例如：主题句：Beijingisfamousforitstemperateclimate,itslargepopulation,anditsrapidindustrialdevelopment.,该主题句有三个不同的观点揉在一起，如果作为一个段落的主题句则不符合要求，该主题句可分解为三个主题句，由三个段落分别来完成。,Paragraph,Back,请看下面的段落有什么问题：MynameisRoseanna,andIliketokeepphysicallyfit.Iusedtoweightwohundredpounds,butIjoinedtheYMCA（YoungmensChristianAssociation基督教青年会）foranexerciseclassanddietprogram.InoneyearIlosteightypounds.Ifeelmuchbetterandneverwanttohavethatmuchweightonmyfive-feetframe（身躯）again.Iboughttwonewsuitcaseslastweek.EverydayIpracticejoggingthreemiles,swimmingfifteenlaps,liftingtwenty-poundweightsandplayingtennisforonehour.Mymotherwasaprematurebaby(早产儿）.,Paragraph,Back,本段的主题句是“Iliketokeepphysicallyfit”，段中所有的句子应围绕这一主题。但段中有两个irrelevantsentences，一个是Iboughttwonewsuitcaseslastweek，另一个是Mymotherwasaprematurebaby.,Paragraph,Back,主题句是一个段落中最具概括性的句子。一般包含两个基本内容：1）本段要讨论的中心人物或事物即主题词；2）作者对这个中心人物或事物的态度、观点或见解即扩展范围或关键词。主题句既不能过于概括，也不能过于具体。主题句过于概括（即过于笼统或题目太大），很难用几句话说清楚，通常会因为得不到应有的充实而显得空泛无力，从而造成不能有效地表达主题思想。主题句过于具体（即缺乏概括性的观点），则无法展开段落，作者的思想就没有发挥的余地，容易造成对一个意思的重复描述。,Paragraph,2.段落的主题句,Back,例如主题句：“Americanfoodisterrible”和“Pollutionisaseriousproblem”就过于概括；而主题句：“HespeaksEnglish”和“Iboughtacarlastweek”就过于具体。主题句可放在句首、句中和句尾。主题句放在句首是一种好的写作方法，可以时刻提醒作者不要跑题，而且便于读者阅读理解。主题句放在句中，对段落的组织较困难，一般用在记叙和描述文体中。主题句放在句尾通常是段落的开始列举事例或事实，最后总结归纳，引出段落的主题思想。有时作者为强调起见，在段落的开头点明了主题，结尾又会重复主题，不过不是简单的重复，而是在意思上与开头相呼应，或者对段落内容进行总结。,Paragraph,Back,其次，一个段落必须有若干扩展句，使主题思想得到充分展开，从而给读者一个完整的感觉，这就是段落的完整性(TheIntegrityofaParagraph)。扩展句和主题句之间，一要形成意义的相关性即所有的扩展句都必须是主题句的延伸或证明，对主题句起支持的作用；二要具有逻辑的合理性即句子的排列顺序必须合乎逻辑，从一个句子到另一个句子的过渡必须流畅，这就是段落的连贯性(TheCoherenceofaParagraph)。,Paragraph,Back,II.段落的扩展,在一个段落中，即使所有的句子意思都清楚，并且逻辑顺序排列正确，但是如果缺乏句与句之间的恰当的过渡，整个段落的连贯性仍会受到影响。一般使用合适的过渡词语来加强句与句之间的衔接或连贯。一个段落通常由“启”、“承”、“转”、“合”这样的一些环节构成，也就是说要正确使用启、承、转、合的词或词组，这样的段落才会既有统一性、完整性，又有连贯性。下面是一些常用的“启、承、转、合”过渡词语：,Paragraph,Back,1.“启”即开启，开始，引出主题句或引导第一个扩展句,Paragraph,Back,1.“启”即开启，开始，引出主题句或引导第一个扩展句,Paragraph,Back,2.“承”即承接，用来承接主题句或第一个扩展句,Paragraph,Back,Paragraph,Back,Paragraph,Back,3.“转”即转折，用来表示语气的转折,Paragraph,Back,3.“转”即转折，用来表示语气的转折,Paragraph,Back,4.“合”即合拢，总结，表示段落的结束,Paragraph,Back,Paragraph,Back,例如：Manystudentshavedifficultytakingtest.Asaresult,theygetpoorgradesontheirquizzes.Theymust,therefore,workharderinclasstocommunicatetheirunderstandingofthecourse.Inaddition,theyusuallydevotegreatperiodsoftimetowritingassignmentsinthehopethattheseassignmentswillraisetheiraverages.Finally,manyoffertodoextraassignmentsduringvocationsinanefforttoraisetheirgrades.Theeffectsofdoingpoorlyonevenonequizcanbestressfultomoststudents.在本段落中，作者使用了一系列的合适的过渡词语使得文章衔接自然、字句通顺、内容连贯。,Paragraph,Back,结尾句通常是对段落的归纳总结和概括，也可以是对主题加以评论。在论述性较强的议论文体中，一般都有结尾句。例如：1)Forthepasttenyears,trafficjamsinBeijinghavebeenmoreandmoreserious.(2)Therearemanyreasonsbutingeneraltheycomedowntothreemaincauses.(3)First,withtherapiddevelopmentofeconomyinBeijing,toomanytransportationtoolsarebroughtintouse,especiallytaxisandprivatecarswhichcountforaremarkablenumberoftrafficjams.,Paragraph,III.段落的结尾,Back,(4)Next,thetrafficsysteminBeijingwasestablishedmainlyinthe1940s.theroadsarestillnarrowthattheycannotbearsuchheavytraffic.(5)ThefinalreasonisthatthepopulationofBeijinghasbeenincreasingsofastthattherearemanypedestriansonthestreets.(6)Fromtheforegoing,itisclearthatthetrafficsysteminBeijingmustbere-establishedassoonaspossible.分析上面段落，我们可以看出：(1)是引入句，（2）是主题句，（3）（4）（5）是扩展句，（6）是结尾句。,Paragraph,Back,Onlineshopping,Advantages:1.Itisconvenienttoshopwithoutgoingout.2.Customershaveavarietyofchoicesandcaneasilydecideonbestbuys.3.Thepriceofonlinegoodsareusuallymuchcheaperthanthoseinstores.,DisadvantagesPeoplecannottryontheclothessotheyusuallyreturnthegoodsbecauseofsize.Insomecases,thequalityofonlinegoodsispoorercomparedwiththoseinstores.Itisunsafeforsomepeopletohaveanonlinebankaccount.,方法,2.过程法(Process),1.时空顺序法(TimeandSpaceSequence),3.举例和归纳法(Exampleperformcomplexmathematicalcomputations;translatelanguages.Differences:Thebraincanmakevaluejudgments;thecomputercant.Thebraincanrespondtoemotions;thecomputercant.Thebraincanfunctionindependently;thecomputerdependsonhumanbeings,Paragraph,Back,参考范文：Thecomputerandthehumanbrainarebothsimilaranddifferent.First,boththecomputerandthehumanbraincanreadandfollowinstructions;bothofthemcanperformcomplexmathematicalcomputations;andeven,bothcantranslatelanguages.Ontheotherhand,thecomputerandthehumanbraindifferinseveralways:Thebraincanmakevaluejudgments;butthecomputercant.Whilethebraincanrespondtoemotions;thecomputerhasnoemotionatall.Thebraincanfunctionindependently;butthecomputercannotworkwithouthumanbeingsprogramandinstruction.,Paragraph,Back,5.因果分析法(CauseandEffect)Toanalyzethecausesofsthortheeffectsofsth,因果分析法是通过分析事物的因果关系来展开段落。我们可以先提出某种现象，然后分析导致这种现象的原因，这就是一果多因（例1）；也可以先给出原因，然后再说明原因导致的结果，这就是一因多果（例2）。运用因果分析法展开段落最好把主题句放在句首，即一果或一因放在开头。,Paragraph,Back,例1:(1)NowtheresalargegapbetweenrichandpoorinChina.(2)Thecauseliesinthreeaspects.(3)Firstthegapistheresultoftheeconomicreform.(4)Somebecomemillionairesbyworkinghardandseizingtheopportunities.(5)Meanwhiletheslowdevelopmentinagricultureandtheclosedownofmanystate-ownedenterpriseshinderthefarmersandworkersfromgreatlyraisingtheirlivingstandards.(6)Second,thecurrentdistributionofincomeisnotscientificenough,thuswideningtheincomedifference.(7)Third,whilemostmakemoneyhonestly,therearesomedishonestbusinessmenandgovernmentagentswhohaveaccumulatedlargefortunesthroughillegalways.（一果多因）此段中，（1）是引导句，（2）是主题句，（3）、（6）、（7）是扩展句，（4）、（5）句是（3）句的二级扩展句。,Paragraph,Back,例2：(1)WheneverweturnonTV,wewillseeadvertisements.(2)Advertisementsareoneofthemostfrustratingpartsofwatchingtelevision.(3)Inthefirstplace,theadvertisementswastetime.(4)Forinstance,inordertoseea90-minutemovie,wehavetospendanother20to30moreminuteswatchingadvertisements.(5)Inthesecondplace,theadvertisementsinterrupttheviewers.(6)Forexample,theviewersmayforgettheplotofashowduringtheadvertisements.(7)Inthethirdplace,theymakepeopleunderconstanteconomicpressure.(8)Theadsmakemanyproductslookmoreattractivethantheyreallyare.(9)Theyalwaysmakepeoplespendmorethantheycanafford.(10)SinceadscouldnotdisappearfromTVscreen,thetelevisionviewersmustbeawareandcriticaloftheadvertisementsinordertoendurethem.（一因多果）此段中，（1）是引导句，（2）是主题句，（3）、（5）、（7）是扩展句，（4）、（6）、（8）、（9）分别是（3）、（5）、（7）句的二级扩展句，（10）是结尾句。,Paragraph,Back,试分析上述段落的展开方式和因果关系。因和果是相对而言的，有时一个原因导致的结果又会成为导致另一种结果的原因，从而形成一系列的因果关系。请看下例：Asthepriceofeverythingincreases,workersdemandhigherwagestokeepupwithrisingcosts.Thiscanproducesfurtherincreasesinpricesoradecreaseddemandformanufacturedgoods,orboth.Sinceproductiontriestokeeppacewithdemand,decreaseddemandisfollowedbydecreasedproduction.This,inturn,canleadtolayoffs(下岗)andunemployment,whichfurtherthedemandforgoods.,Paragraph,Back,上面三段的展开模式为：,模式1CauseEffect1Effect2,ConcludingSentence,模式2EffectCause1Cause2,ConcludingSentence,模式3Cause1Effect1（Cause2）Effect2(Cause3)Effect3ConcludingSentence,Paragraph,Back,常用于因果分析法段落阐述原因的句型和词语有：,TheexplanationisthatThereareseveralreasonswhy/forThecauseofisThereasonsforare,istheresultofiscausedby/dueto/becauseofbecause,since,nowthat,becauseof,asaresultof,onaccountof,forthisreason,owingto,dueto,for,as,thanksto,resultfrom,Paragraph,Back,常用于因果分析法段落阐述结果的句型和词语有：,Theresult/effect/consequenceofiswillresultinTherefore,Asaresult(of),Leadto,resultin,contributeto,sothat,thus,hence,consequently,so,accordingly,inviewof,Paragraph,Back,Homework:SmokingResultsinaSeriesofNegativeEffects,参考范文：Smokingresultsinaseriesofnegativeeffects.Tobeginwith,ithasbeenprovedthatpoisonousnicotinecontainedincigarettescanreduceyourfitness.Andwhatisworse,itcanevencauselungcancerifyousmokeconstantly.Thatiswhysuchwarningas“smokingisharmfultoyourhealth”mustbeprintedonthecoverofthecigarettecaseinwesterncountries.Furthermore,passivesmokingoccursinyourfamilymembersandotherpeopleasaresultofyoursmokingathomeorinpublicplaces.Consequently,theirhealthwillbeunfavorablyinfluenced.,点击继续,Paragraph,Back,Inaddition,smokingaddstoyourfinancialdifficultyifyouhappentobeshortofmoney.Evenifyouarerich,youareencouragedtospendyourmoneyonvaluablebooks,nutritiousfood,highqualityTVsets,etc.,notonmeaninglesssmoking.Therefore,givingupsmokingisagoodwaytomakeyouandyourfamilyhappy.,Paragraph,Back,6.分类法(Classification)Toexplainsth.Withclassificationmethod,当要说明的事物比较复杂或包括的内容比较多时，常常将其分成更小的类别，这便是分类法。在阐述某一概念的段落中，常用分类法。通过对概念中所包括的事物进行分门别类，分别加以叙述，使读者有更为清晰的认识。,Paragraph,Back,如：Eversincehumanshavelivedontheearth,theyhavemadeuseofvariousformsofcommunication.Generally,thisexpressionofthoughtsandfeelingshasbeenintheformoforalspeech.Whenthereisalanguagebarrier,communicationisaccomplishedthroughsignlanguageinwhichmotionsstandforletters,wordsandideas.Touristsandthepeopleunabletohearorspeakhavehadtoresorttothisformofexpression.Manyofthesesymbolsofwholewordsareveryvividandexactandcanbeusedinternationally;spelling,however,cannot.Bodylanguagetransmitsideasorthoughtsbycertainactions,eitherintentionallyorunintentionally.Anodsignifiesapproval,whileshakingtheheadindicatesanegativereaction.Otherformsofnonlinguisticlanguagecanbefoundinsignalflags,Morsecode,andpicturesigns.,Paragraph,Back,在该段中为了说明topicsentence中的variousformsofcommunication，作者将其分为oralspeech,signlanguage,bodylanguag