语言学-discourse-analysis.ppt

Chapter7DiscourseAnalysis语篇分析,Majorcontents,1.Discourseanddiscourseanalysis2.Informationstructure3.Cohesionandcoherence4.Discoursemarkers5.Conversationalanalysis6.Criticalanalysis,1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis,DiscourseLanguageabovethesentenceorabovetheclause.(Stubbs,1983:1)Textlinguistics/discourseanalysiswrittenspokenUsedinterchangeablynow,1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis,DiscourseanalysisDiscourselinguistics/discoursestudies/textanalysisThestudyofhowsentencesinspokenandwrittenlanguageformlargermeaningfulunitssuchasparagraphs,conversations,interviews,etc.p168,1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis,LanguageinusePragmatics:meaningDiscourseanalysis:informationstructureMostpowerfulinstrument:FunctionalSystemicGrammar,1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis,Fertilizersputbackwhattherainandplantstakeaway.Plasticpotsarenotjustsubstitutesforclayones.Pearsarealittlemoretemperamentalthanapples.Supportingandtrainingarenotquitethesamething.,1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis,Pickupahandfulofsoilinyourgarden.Ordinary,unexcitingearth.YetitisoneofNaturesmiracles,andoneofhermostcomplexproducts.Yoursuccessasagardenerwilllargelydependuponitscondition,sotakethefirstboldstepingardening-gettoknowyoursoil.,1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis,AprimarytaskofDAistoexplorethelinguisticfeatureswhichcharacterizediscourse.ThegoalofDAistoexaminehowreaderoruserofadiscourserecognizesthatpartsofadiscoursearedependentonothers.Oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofdiscourseiscohesion(衔接),1DiscourseandDiscourseAnalysis,TopicsofDA:Informationstructure(信息结构)Cohesion(衔接)Coherence(连贯)Discoursemakers(话语标记语)Conversationalanalysis(会话分析),2InformationStructure,Howdolanguageusersarrangeinformationwithindiscourse?2.1GivenandnewinformationAlice:Whoatethebread?Tom:Maryatethebread.Giveninformation:knowntotheaddresseeNewinformation:unknowntotheaddressee.,2.1Givenandnewinformation,Giveninformationcanbeintroducedbyonespeakeralone:Amancalledwhileyouwereonyourbreak.Hesaidhedcallbacklater.Giveninformationcanbesomethingcloselyrelatedtothementionedinformation(e.g.meronymy)（部分-整体关系）Kentreturnedmycarlastnightafterborrowingitfortheday.Oneofthewheelswasabouttofalloffandthedashboardwasmissing.,2.1Givenandnewinformation,FormsofN/Ginformation:New-informationcarriersusuallyreceivemorestress,andtheyarecommonlymoreelaborated,e.g.withafullnounphrase,relativeclauseoradjectivalmodifier(s).E.g.WhenIenteredtheroom,therewasatallmanwithanold-fashionedhaton,quiteelegantlydressed.,2.1Givenandnewinformation,Giveninformationisexpressedinshorterforms(pronouns/unstressednounphrase/omitted):A:Whoatetheapple?B:Marydid./Mary.,2.2Topicandcomment话题和述题,Topic话题:whattheutteranceisabout.Comment述题:whatissaidaboutthetopic.Topicistheelementofasentencethatfunctionsasthecenterofattention.Topicisusuallythesubject,nounphrase.Maryatethebread.,2.2Topicandcomment,Otherelementscantaketheroletoo.Aftertea,willyoutellmeastory.MarkthetopicPlacetopicintheinitialpositioninEnglish.Abeautifuldressshedidmake.Topicisnotnecessarilyapropertyofthesentence;itmaybeapropertyofthediscoursecontext:Oh,look!,2.2Topicandcomment,Topic-commentvs.given-newinformationGiven-newinformation:thepointofviewofthelistener.Topic-commentrelatestothatofthespeaker.Thegivenelementisthatwhichthespeakerpresentsasalreadybeingknowntothelistener.Thetopicelementrepresentswhattheutteranceisabout.,2.2Topicandcomment,Giveninformationisnotalwaysthetopic.Maryatethebread.Asforherlittlesister,shedranktheCoca-Cola.new/topicPeterdidntbelieveanythingthecharlatansaid.AsforMary,shebelievedeverythinghesaid.given/comment,2.2Topicandcomment,Topic-commentvs.rheme-themeRheme-theme:sentenceTopic-comment:discourseRheme-theme:concretesentencestructure(linguisticform)Topic-comment:abstractinformationstructureMikeshousewassocomfortableandwarm!Hereallydidntwanttoleave,buthecouldntaffordtherent,youknow.Andithadsuchanicegardenintheback!,2.2Topicandcomment,TopicsarenotsoimportanttothegrammarofEnglish.ThereisonlyonegrammaticalstructurewhichmarkstopicsinEnglish.Asforme,Imgonnagotobed.Otherlanguageshavespecialformstomarkthetopic(Japanese,Korean)Chinesemarkstopicsbywordorder:作业终于做完了！,2.2Topicandcomment,InEnglish,markingthetopicofasentenceisfarlessimportantthanmarkingthesubject.Therearespecialformstoindicatethesubject:Shelooksathim.,2.3Contrast对比,Contrast:anounphraseoccursinoppositiontoanothernounphraseinthediscourse.contrastiveA:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,Johndid.B:Yes,Tomsawtheghost.,2.3Contrast对比,Oneoutstandingfromalliscontrastedwiththewhole:Ofeveryonepresent,onlyPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Adeleknewwhatwasgoingon,andPeterknewwhatwasgoingon.Contrastisalsomarkedinsentencesthatexpressthenarrowingdownofachoicefromseveralcandidatestoone.,2.3Contrast对比,Testforcontrast:Ifanounphrasecanbefollowedby“ratherthan”,itiscontrastive:A:DidTomseetheghost?B:No,John,ratherthanTom,sawtheghost.B:No,Tomseetheangle,ratherthantheghost.,2.3Contrast对比,Asinglesentencecanhaveseveralcontrastivenounphrases:A:DidTomseeaghost?B:Yes,Tomsawaghost,butJohnsawanentirecastofspirits.Contrastisobservedfromthediscoursecontextorsituationalcontext.MarylikesgoingtoMaineduringthewinter.,2.3Contrast对比,Employee:CanIleaveearlytoday?Manager:Idontmind.InEnglish,contrastivenounphrasecanbemarkedbypronouncingitwithstrongstress:Youmaybesmart,buthesgood-looking.,3.CohesionandCoherence衔接butifyoudoevil,thesamewillbemeasuredbacktoyou.Therefore,letsdogood.,Lexicalcohesioniscohesionthroughtheuseofwords,i.e.thewriterorspeakerrelatesthetextconsistentlytoitsareaoffocusthroughtheselectionoflexicalitems.repetition重复Threetypes:synonym同义词collocation上义词,3.1.5Lexicalcohesion词汇衔接,Repetition:repeatthesamewords,orgeneralnouns,orotherwordssharingthemajorityofsemanticfeatures.Thedonkeydied;thepoorcreaturehasworkedhardallhislife.Superodinate:thesameword,synonymornear-synonym,superordinate,generalwords,collocation.Iwatchedafootballgamelastnight,andbecameveryupsetwhentherefereepulledout3redcardsinaminute.,Repetitionoflexicalitems.Arepeateditemmaybearepetitionofanearlieritem,asynonymornear-synonym,asuperordinate,orageneralword.Thereisaboyplayingwithfire.Theboyisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesnttakecare.(repetition)Theladisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesnttakecare.(synonym)Thechildisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesnttakecare.(superordinate)Theidiotisgoingtoburnhimselfifhedoesnttakecare.(generalword),Collocation搭配：thetendencyofcertainlexicalitemstoco-occur.AlittlefatmanofBombayWassmokingoneveryhotdayButabirdcalledasnipeFlewawaywithhispipeWhichvexed（生气的）thefatmanofBombay,3.2Coherence连贯Interestinglyenough,theuseofcohesivedevicesalonemaynotproducetextsthat“makesense”.Considerthefollowingpassage:e.g.IboughtaFord.AcarinwhichPresidentWilsonrodedowntheChampsElysees(香榭丽舍大街)wasBlack.BlackEnglishhasbeenwidelydiscussed.Thediscussionbetweenthepresidentsendedlastweek.Aweekhassevendays.EverydayIfeedmycat.Catshavefourlegs.Thecatisonthemat.Mathasthreeletters.,从前有座山，山上有座庙，庙里有个老和尚，老和尚在和小和尚讲故事:从前有座山,Coherence:therelationshipswhichlinkthemeaningsofutterancesinadiscourseorofthesentencesintext.Itconcernspeoplesabilitytomatchthetextwiththeirexperienceortheirunderstandingoftheword.Ifastretchofalanguageisinlinewithsomeexperienceortheir“commonsense”,itwillberecognizedasameaningfultext.,Coherenceissthunderlyingthetext-semanticconnections,logicalconnectionsortemporalsequence.Itiscreatedbyourreallifeknowledge.Cohesionistheverbalrealizationofcoherenceintheformofcohesivedevices.Asweseeinthelastsamplepassage.,(50)Student:Ivelostmybunchofkeys!Roommate:Itsafinedaytoday.Student:Soyouvegotafreedinner.(p197),GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Andheisnowalawyer.GeorgestudiedlawinCambridge.Heisnowalawyer.Theabsenceoftheconjunctions“and”inthesecondsentencedoesnotaffectcoherenceatall.Weknowfromourexperiencethatbeingalawyerisalikelyoutcomeofstudyinglaw.Insummary,therecanbenomeaningcohesionwithoutcoherence,butcoherencewithoutcohesionmaybeperfectlypossible.,7.4Discoursemarkers话语标记语,Whatisthedefinitionofdiscoursemarkers?Howmanytypesofdiscoursemarkerarethere?,discoursemarkers(DM):expressionsthatarecommonlyusedintheinitialpositionofanutteranceandaresyntacticallydetachablefromasentence.conversationalparticles:wellandohparentheticallexicalizedclauses:yknow,Imeanandyousee,connectiveelementsso,afterall,andmoreover.,Themainroleofdiscoursemarkers:toguidespeakersinterpretationsoftheutterances.ThefeaturesofDMs:DMsseemtoclarifyatextsstructuralrelationsforthereader.Despiteanydifferencesintheiruseindifferenttypesofdiscourse,theseitemsshareanumberofformalandtextualfeatures.,7.5Conversationalanalysis,Theanalysisofnaturalconversationinordertodiscoverwhatthelinguisticcharacteristicsofconversationareandhowconversationisusedinordinarylifeiscalledconversationalanalysis(CA).,ThreemechanismsinCA,adjacencypairs(相邻语对)preferencestructure(首选结构)presequences(前序列)Itincludesthestudyofhowspeakersdecidewhentospeakduringaconversation,howtheutterancesoftwoormorespeakersarerelated,andthedifferentfunctionsthatconversationisusedfor.,7.5.1Adjacencypairs相邻语对,Certainturnshavespecificfollow-upturns.Questionstakeanswers.Greetingsarereturnedbygreetings,invitationsbyacceptancesorrefusals,andsoon.Suchsequencesofturnsarecalledadjacencypairs:asequenceoftworelatedutterancesbytwodifferentspeakers.Thesecondutteranceisalwaysaresponsetothefirst.,(56)A:Youleftthelighton.B:Itwasntme!thesequenceofcomplaint-denialisanadjacencypair.,Adjacencypairshavefiveproperties:Adjacencypairsconsistoftwoutterances,afirstpartandasecondpart.Thetwopartsarespokenbydifferentspeakers.Thefirstandsecondpartsbelongtospecifictypes,forexample,questionandanswer,orgreetingandgreeting.,Theformandcontentofthesecondpartdependsonthetypeofthefirstpart.Giventhataspeakerhasproducedafirstpart,thesecondpartisrelevantandexpectableasthenextutterance.,Adjacencypairscomeinmanytypesquestion-answergreeting-greetinginvitation-acceptance/non-acceptanceoffer-acceptance/non-acceptancecomplaint-apology/denialsummons传唤-responseassertion-assent赞成request-acceptancepromise-acknowledgementthanks-acknowledgementgoodbye-goodbye.,However,notallfirstpartsimmediatelyreceivetheirsecondparts.Itoftenhappensthataquestion-answer(Q-A)sequencewillbedelayedwhileanotherquestion-answersequenceintervenes.ThesequencewillthentaketheformofQ1-Q2-A2-A1,withthemiddlepair(Q2-A2)beingcalledaninsertionsequence插入语列.,(57)Agent:Doyouwanttheearlyflight!(=Q1)Client:Whattimedoesitarrive?(=Q2)Agent:Nineforty-five.(=A2)Client:Yeahthatsgreat.(=A1),Aninsertionsequenceisoneadjacencypairwithinanother.Inprinciple,thenumberofinsertionsequencescanbeinfinite,butthelimitofhumanmemorydoesnotallowthat.Threeorfourinsertionsequencesarecommon.,(58)A:AreyoucomingtoourpartyTuesdayevening?(Q1)B:CanIbringafriendalong?(Q2)A:Maleorfemale?(Q3)B:Whatdoesthatmatter?(Q4)A:Justamatterofbalance.(A4)B:Male.(A3)A:Okey.(A2)B:Illbetherethen.(A1),Ex:,1)Son:CanIwatchTV,Dad?Father:Haveyoufinishedyourhomework?Son:No.Father:Thenyoucant.Inthisexample,thefatherdelayshisanswertohissonsquestionuntilhehascheckedifthenecessaryconditionexists.,2)A:Couldyoulendmeafewbucks?B:Whatfor?A:IneedtotakeatriptoSanFranciscotoseemygirlfriend.B:Howmuchdoyouwant?A:Welluh50dollarsisok.B:Whenareyougonnareturn?A:NextMonday.B:Allright.Waitforme.Illberightback.,7.5.2Preferencestructure首选结构,Anadjacencypairmayhavedifferentsecondparts.Forexample,aquestioncanbefollowedbya)aquestion,b)byapartialanswer,c)byastatementofignorance,d)byadenialoftherelevanceofthequestionore)byadenialofitspresupposition:,(59)A:WhatdoesJoedoforaliving?B:a.Doyouneedtoknow?b.Oh,thisandthat.c.Ivenoidea.d.Whatsthatgottodowithit?e.Hedoesnt.,Preferencestructuredividessecondpartsintopreferredanddispreferred.Thepreferredisthestructurallyexpectednextactandthedispreferredisthestructurallyunexpectednextact.Thepreferredsecondpartsaremoreusual,morenormalandlessspecific.,(60)A:Haveyougotalight?B:Yes.(61)A:Haveyougotalight?B:No,sorry.Idontsmoke.Bsreplyin(60)ispreferredanddispreferredin(61):,7.5.3Presequences前序列,(63)Jeff:Mornin,Stan!Stan:Hi.Howsitgoin?Jeff:Oh,cantcomplain,Iguess.Readyforthemeetingthisafternoon?Stan:Well,Idonthavemuchchoice!,Greetingsexemplifyopeningsequences,utterancesthateasepeopleintoaconversation.Theyconveythemessage“Iwanttotalktoyou”.Theopeningsequencesthatareusedtosetupsomespecificpotentialactionsarecalledpresequences.,Greetingsareusuallyreservedforacquaintanceswhohavenotseeneachotherforawhile,oraspresequencesforlongerconversationsbetweenstrangers.Somesituationsdonotrequireagreeting,aswithastrangerapproachinginthestreettoaskforthetime:“Excuseme,sir,doyouknowwhattimeitis?”,(64)A:WhatareyoudoingthisSunday?B:Nothingspecial.Why?A:Whydontyoucomeoutwithusthen?Herethepre-invitationistreatedastransparentbyBwhos