Unit-2------Culture-and-Communication.ppt

Unit2CultureandCommunication,Pre-readingQuestions:1.Whatdoesthetermcultureusuallymeantoyou?2.Whatdoyouknowaboutthefunctionsofculture?,RepresentativeDefinitionstoCulture,Cultureisnotoriouslydifficulttodefine.Sofarthereareatleastmorethan150definitionstoit.Cultureisthatcomplexwholewhichincludesknowledge,belief,art,law,morals,custom,andanyothercapabilitiesandhabitsacquiredbymanasamemberofsociety.-E.B.Tylor,1871Culturemaybedefinedaswhatasocietydoesandthinks.-E.Sapir,1921Whatreallybindsmentogetheristheirculture-theideasandthestandardstheyhaveincommon.-R.Benedict,1935Cultureismansmedium;thereisnotoneaspectofhumanlifethatisnottouchedandalteredbyculture.Thismeanspersonality,howpeopleexpressthemselves(includingshowsofemotion),thewaytheythink,howtheymove,howproblemsaresolved,howtheircitiesareplannedandlaidout,howtransportationsystemsfunctionandareorganized,aswellashoweconomicandgovernmentsystemsareputtogetherandfunction.-EdwardT.Hall,1959,Continued,Byculture,anthropologymeansthetotallifewayofapeople,thesociallegacytheindividualacquiresfromhisgroup.Orculturecanberegardedasthatpartoftheenvironmentthatisthecreationofman.-ClydeKluckhohn,1965Acultureisacollectionofbeliefs,habits,livingpatterns,andbehaviorswhichareheldmoreorlessincommonbypeoplewhooccupyparticulargeographicareas.-D.Brown,1978.culturereferstothetotalwayoflifeofparticulargroupsofpeople.Itincludeseverythingthatagroupofpeoplethinks,says,does,andmakes.-R.Kohl,1979Thecultureofeverysocietyisunique,containingcombinationsofnormsandvaluesthatarefoundnowhereelse.-I.Robertson,1981,Continued,Itreatcultureasthecollectiveprogrammingofthemindthatdistinguishesthemembersofonegrouporcategoryofpeoplefromanother.Themindstandsforthehead,heart,andhands-thatis,forthinking,feeling,andacting,withconsequencesforbeliefs,attitudes,andskills.-G.Hofstede,2001Cultureisafuzzysetofattitudes,beliefs,behavioralconventions,andbasicassumptionsandvaluesthataresharedbyagroupofpeople,andthatinfluenceeachmembersbehaviorandeachmembersinterpretationsofthemeaningofotherpeoplesbehavior.-Apte,2001,汉语中“文化”一词的来源,中国有华夷之辨，但无文化之概念。在中国典籍中，“文”既指文字、文章、文采，又指礼乐制度、法律条文等；“化”乃“教化”之意。汉代刘向在说苑中说：“凡武之兴，为不服也，文化不改，然后加诛”。其中“文化”一词与“武功”相对，含教化之意。“文化”两字的组合，最早见于战国末年出现的周易贲卦：“观乎天文，以察时变；观乎人文，以化成天下”。在西方，“文化”一词源于拉丁文cultura,在英文中为culture,原意是指农耕以及对植物的培育，从15世纪以来，逐渐引申为对人的品德和能力的培养。在近代，日本人将英文culture翻译成文化，此后我国便借用日人之译法。,文化的特征,1.文化是由人类进化过程中衍生出来或创造出来的。e.g.水不是文化，人修的水道才是文化（如京杭大运河）2.文化是人们后天习得的。e.g.“近朱者赤，近墨者黑”，“跟着好人学好人，跟着巫婆学跳神”3.文化是一个体系。e.g.美国向他国输出美式文化，势必会对该国文化的方方面面带来影响。4.文化在一个群体中具有共享性。e.g.大中华文化圈“耻文化”，同性恋文化5.世界的文化是丰富多彩的。e.g.犹太人吃鱼类不吃猪肉，祖鲁人吃蝗虫不吃鱼类；阿拉伯妇女需全身遮盖，非洲许多地区妇女可裸胸露臀6.文化是发展变化的。e.g.中国文化随处可见外国舶来品，从牛仔服到KFC，从迪斯科到卡拉OK7.文化具有民族性和特定的阶级性。8.文化常有本民族文化优越感的倾向。culturalsuperorityethnocentric9.文化是建立在象征符号之上的，是可以传递的。,FunctionsofCulture,1.cultureservestheidentitymeaningfunction;2.cultureservesthegroupinclusionfunction;3.cultureservestheintergroupboundaryregulationfunction;4.cultureservestheecologicaladaptationfunction;5.cultureservestheculturalcommunicationfunction.,examplestoillustratecultureschracteristics,example1ConceptofGirlChineseperspective:Girlmeanssb.whoisyoungandsingle,whilewomanmeanssb.whoismarriedandwhoisprobablynotyoung.Infact,mostsingleChinesefemales,suchasuniversitystudents,wouldbeinsultedtobecalledwomen.However,malestudentsofthesameagewouldnotwanttobecalledboys.NorthAmericanperspective:Informal,publicsettings,itscustomarytocallanyfemalewhoispastpubertyawoman,eventhoughshemaynotbelegallyoldenoughtovoteormarry.Thisterminologybecamewidespreadduringthewomensliberation.Thetermgirlissometimesinterpretedtobedemeaningordisrespectful.Interestingly,thetermgirlisoftenusedamongyoungorolderwomentorefertothemselveswhenspeakingwithfemalefriendsoraspouseorlover,suchasagirlsnightout,Gogirl!,girlpower.,thegiftofabook,Chineseperspective:ItisacommonpracticeinChinathatwhensb.publishesabook,hewouldsendittopeoplehecaresabout.Ifafriendaskstheauthorforafreecopyofthebook,theauthorissupposedtofeelgratefulaboutthis.Inthecasewheresb.wantstobuyacopy,mostauthorswouldfinditembarrassingtotakethemoney.NorthAmericanperspective:BooksinNorthAmericatendtobeexpensive,sopeoplenormallydontexpecttheauthortogiveawayfreecopiestoanyonewhoexpressesinterest.Furthermore,writingabooktakesalotofwork,andpeopelfullyunderstandthattheauthorisentitledtobepaidforhiswork.,sexualharassmenthasmanyfaces,Chineseperspective:Teacher-studentloverelationshipisnotsomethingveryunusualinChina.Peoplemaytalkaboutitforawhileandthengetusedtothefact.Noonewouldinterferewiththeloverelationship.NorthAmericanperspective:InNorthAmerica,anyromanticliaisonbetweenapersoninapositionofpowerandapersoninasubordinatepositioncouldbeaformofsexualharassment.,MaslowsHierarchyofNeeds-1943,Fill-inTask,Culturecanberoughlyclassifiedaccordingtodifferentstandards.formalculturevsdeepculture形式文化-深层文化explicitculturevsimplicitculture显性文化-隐性文化overtculturevscovertculture公开文化-隐蔽文化,ReadingII,Inreality,communicationistheessentialhumanconnection.Whetherinpictures,ormusic,whetherverbalornonverbal,informativeorpersuasive,frighteningoramusing,clearorunclear,purposefuloraccidental,communicationisourlinktotherestofthehumanity.CharacteristicsofCommunicationcommunicationissymboliccommunicationisinterpretivecommunicationistransactionalcommunicationiscontextualcommunicationisaprocesscommunicationinvolvessharedmeanings,ElementsofCommunication,context:physicalsetting,historical,psychological,cultureparticipants:relationship,gender,culturemessages:meanings,symbol,encoding,decodingchannels:sound,sight,smell,taste,touch,etc.noise:externalnoise,internalnoise,semanticnoisefeedback:verbalornonverbalresponsegivenbyreceiverswhoattempttodecodethemeaningofmessages,semanticnoise,古时一县官与一知府之间的对话：“贵县风土怎样？”“并没有大风，更少尘土。”“百姓怎样？”“白杏只有两棵，红杏不少。”“我问的是黎庶。”“梨树很多，结的果实很小。”“我不是问什么梨树，我是问你的小民。”“卑职的小名叫狗儿。”,continued,1945年，日本首相铃木宣布他的政府愿意“默殺”（mokusatsu)波茨坦公告(ThePotsdamProclamation)。该词既有“藐视或不理睬”之意，又有“高明老练地不作出反应”之意。译员选前意，此误译使美国断定日本不愿投降，于是在广岛、长崎投下了原子弹。,DiscoveringProblems,ItiseasytoseewhatiswrongwitheachoftheEnglishcommercialsigns.Someofthemaregrammaticallyincorrect;someothers,thoughgrammaticallycorrect,useEnglishinastrangeway,probablyinfluencedbythenativelanguagesofthecountries.MorecasesofmisuseofEnglishinourlife:地面光滑，小心摔倒-TheGroundissmooth,carefullyThrowsDown.(inahotel)售票房-SellstheBoxOffice(atacinema)熟食计价处-TheFamiliarFoodMakesSurethePrice(inasupermarket)话梅糖-SayingPlumCandies（onthepackageofthecandies),MatchingTask,1.j-Isupposethefilmisatear-jerker2.f-wedonthaveanythingtotreatcompletelossofvoice3.a-Idontwanttotalkaboutit.4.g-perhapsthedoghaseatentheraostbeef5.i-Imabitdubiousaboutdrinkingthatcocktail6.h-Imnotgoingtoit7.b-Ididntbuyherarose8.c-IthinkTheOmenisscary9.d-whiskeyplease/sth.otherthanwhiskey,please10.e-No,heisnt,fortheEnglisharegenerallynotgoodcooks,Translation,文化有时候被称为我们的心智程序，也即我们“头脑的软件”。但是，我们可以进一步引申这个用电脑所做的类比，把文化看作是支持软件运行的操作环境。文化就像电脑使用的DOS或者Unix或者“视窗”(Windows)等操作系统一样，使我们能在各种各样的实际应用中处理信息。用“视窗”这个比喻来描述文化似乎也很有吸引力。文化就是我们心灵的视窗，透过它我们可以审视生活的方方面面。一个社会中不同个体的视窗是大不一样的，但都有着一些重要的共同特征。文化就好像是鱼畅游于其中的水一般，人们想当然地把文化看成是客观存在的事实，从而很少去研究它。文化存在于我们所呼吸的空气之中，文化对我们了解自我是必不可少的，就正如生命离不开空气一样。文化是特定群体,CONTINUED,的共有财产，而不单是个体的特征。社会按照文化设定的程序来运作，这种程序来自于相似的生活体验以及对这种生活体验之涵义的相似性阐释。如果文化是一种心智程序，那么它也是现实的心灵地图。从我们很小的时候开始，文化就告诉我们应该看重什么、偏好什么、规避什么以及做些什么。文化还告诉我们事物应该是什么样的。文化为我们提供超越个体经验的理想典范，帮助我们决定应该优先考虑什么。文化为我们建立起行为准则，并解释为什么符合这些准则的行为正当、合法。,CaseStudy,case5:InChina,itisoftennotpolitetoacceptafirstofferandHepingwasbeingmodest,politeandwell-behavedandhadeveryintentionofaccpetingthebeeratthesecondorthirdoffer.ButhedidnotknowtheNorthAmericanruleswhichfirmlysaythatyoudonotpushalcoholicbeveragesonanyone.Apersonmaynotdrinkforreligiousreasons,hemaybeareformedalcoholic,orhemaybeallergic.Whateverthereason,youdonotinsistonofferingalcohol.SotheAmericansdidntmakeasecondofferofbeertoHeping,whoprobablythoughtNorthAmericansnothospitable.However,therearealwaysindividualdifferencesbetweenpeoplefromeventhesameculture.ProbablytheyoungChinesenursehadknownsth.abouttheAmericancultureandwasjusttryingtobehavelikeanAmericanwhenshewasinanAmericanfamily.,Case6,Whenaspeakersayssth.toahearer,thereareatleastthreekindsofmeaningsinvolved:utterancemeaning,thespeakersmeaningandthehearersmeaning.Inthedialogue,whenLitzaskedhowlonghermother-in-lawwasgoingtostay,shemeantthatifsheknewhowlongshewasgoingtostayinFinland,shewouldbeabletomakeproperarrangementsforher,suchastakingherouttodosomesightseeing.However,hermother-in-lawtookLitzsquestiontomeanthatLitzdoesnotwantmetostayforlong.FromtheChinesepointofview,itseemsinappropriateforLitztoasksuchaquestionjusttwodaysafterhermother-in-lawsarrival.Ifshehastoaskthequestion,itwouldbebettertoasksometimelaterandshewouldnotlethermother-in-lawhearit.,Case7,Keikoinsistsongivingvaluablegiftstohercollegefriends,becauseincountrieslikeJapan,exchanginggiftsisastronglyrootedsocialtradition.Shouldyoureceiveagift,anddonthaveonetoofferinreturn,youwillprobablycreateacrisis.Ifnotasseriousasacrisis,onewhodoesntofferagiftinreturnmaybeconsideredrudeorimpolite.Therefore,inJapan,giftsareasymbolicwaytoshowappreciation,respect,gratitudeandfurtherrelationship.KeikoobviouslyhastakenthoseuseditemsfromMary,EdandMarionasgifts,forsheprobablydoesntknowthatAmericansfrequentlydonatetheirusedhouseholditemstochurchortothecommunity.Ma