意大利托斯卡尼（李常生）.ppt

,手動翻頁Handplay,義大利的一個省，全世界最美麗的一個地區Themostbeautifulareaoftheworld.,1,義大利的一個省，全世界最美麗的一個地區Themostbeautifulareaoftheworld.,2,3,Tuscany(Italian:Toscana,pronouncedtoskana)isaregioninItaly.Ithasanareaofabout23,000squarekilometres(8,900sqmi)andapopulationofabout3.75millioninhabitants.TheregionalcapitalisFlorence(Firenze).Tuscanyisknownforitsgorgeouslandscapes,itsrichartisticlegacyanditsinfluenceonhighculture.TuscanyisregardedasthetruebirthplaceoftheItalianRenaissance,andhasbeenhometosomemanyinfluentialpeopleinthehistoryofartsandscience,suchasPetrarch,Dante,Botticelli,Michelangelo,NiccoloMachiavelli,LeonardodaVinci,GalileoGalilei,AmerigoVespucci,LucaPacioliandPuccini.Asaresultofthis,theregionhasseveralmuseums(suchastheUffizi,thePittiPalaceandtheChiancianoMuseumofArt).Tuscanyhasauniqueculinarytradition,andisfamousforitswines(mostfamousofwhichareChianti,VinoNobilediMontepulciano,MorellinodiScansanoandBrunellodiMontalcino).,4,SixTuscanlocalitieshavebeendesignatedWorldHeritageSites:thehistoriccentreofFlorence(1982),thehistoricalcentreofSiena(1995),thesquareoftheCathedralofPisa(1987),thehistoricalcentreofSanGimignano(1990),thehistoricalcentreofPienza(1996)andtheValdOrcia(2004).Tuscanyhasover120protectednaturereserves.ThismakesTuscanyanditscapitalFlorencepopulartouristdestinations,attractingmillionsoftouristseveryyear.Florencereceivesanaverageof10milliontouristsayear,placingthecityasoneofthemostvisitedintheworld(in2007,thecitybecametheworlds46thmostvisitedcity,withover1.715millionarrivals).Thepre-EtruscanhistoryoftheareainthelateBronzeandIronAgesparallelsthatoftheearlyGreeks.7TheTuscanareawasinhabitedbypeoplesoftheso-calledApenninecultureinthelatesecondmillenniumBC(roughly13501150BC)whohadtradingrelationshipswiththeMinoanandMycenaeancivilisationsintheAegeanSea.7Followingthis,theVillanovanculture(1100700BC)sawTuscany,andtherestofEtruria,takenoverbychiefdoms.7City-statesdevelopedinthelateVillanovan(parallelingGreeceandtheAegean)beforeOrientalisationoccurredandtheEtruscancivilisationrose.,5,EtruscansTheEtruscanscreatedthefirstmajorcivilisationinthisregion,largeenoughtoestablishatransportinfrastructure,toimplementagricultureandminingandtoproducevibrantart.TheEtruscanslivedinEtruriawellintoprehistory.7ThecivilizationgrewtofilltheareabetweentheArnoRiverandTiberRiverfromthe8thcenturyBC,reachingitspeakduringthe7thand6thcenturiesBC,finallysuccumbingtotheRomansbythe1stcentury.9Throughouttheirexistence,theylostterritory(inCampania)toMagnaGraecia,CarthageandCelts.DespitebeingseenasdistinctinitsmannersandcustomsbycontemporaryGreeks,10theculturesofGreece,andlaterRome,influencedthecivilisationtoagreatextent.Onereasonforitseventualdemise9wasthisincreasingabsorptionbysurroundingcultures,includingtheadoptionoftheEtruscanupperclassbytheRomans.,6,7,8,RomansSoonafterabsorbingEtruria,RomeestablishedthecitiesofLucca,Pisa,Siena,andFlorence,endowedtheareawithnewtechnologiesanddevelopment,andensuredpeace.Thesedevelopmentsincludedextensionsofexistingroads,introductionofaqueductsandsewers,andtheconstructionofmanybuildings,bothpublicandprivate.However,manyofthesestructureshavebeendestroyedbyerosionduetoweather.8TheRomancivilizationintheWestcollapsedinthe5thcenturyandtheregionwaslefttotheGoths,andothers.Inthe6thcentury,theLongobardsarrivedanddesignatedLuccathecapitaloftheirDuchyofTuscia.TheMedievalPeriodPilgrimstravellingalongtheViaFrancigenabetweenRomeandFrancebroughtwealthanddevelopmentduringthemedievalperiod.Thefoodandshelterrequiredbythesetravellersfuelledthegrowthofcommunitiesaroundchurchesandtaverns.TheconflictbetweentheGuelphsandGhibellines,factionssupportingthePapacyandtheHolyRomanEmpireincentralandnorthernItalyduringthe12thand13thcenturies,splittheTuscanpeople.8ThesetwofactorsgaverisetoseveralpowerfulandrichmedievalcommunesinTuscany:Arezzo,Florence,Lucca,Pisa,andSiena.Balancebetweenthesecommuneswereensuredbytheassetstheyheld;Pisa,aport;Siena,banking;andLucca,bankingandsilk.11Bytherenaissance,however,FlorencehadbecometheculturalcapitalofTuscany.11AnotherfamilythatbefittedfromFlorencesgrowingwealthandpowerweretherulingMediciFamily.LorenzodeMediciwasoneofthemostfamousandthebenefitsofhistimearestillbeingobservedtodayinthefantasticartandarchitectureinFlorencetoday.OneofhisfamousdescendantsCaterinaCatherinedeMedicimarriedPrinceHenry(laterasKingHenryII)ofFrancein1533.TheBlackDeathepidemichitTuscany,startingin1348.Iteventuallykilled50%to60%ofTuscans.AccordingtoMelissaSnell,Florencelostathirdofitspopulationinthefirstsixmonthsoftheplague,andfrom45%to75%ofitspopulationinthefirstyear.15In1630FlorenceandTuscanywereonceagainravagedbytheplague.,義大利的一個省，全世界最美麗的一個地區Themostbeautifulareaoftheworld.,9,TheRenaissanceTuscany,especiallyFlorence,isregardedasthebirthplaceoftheRenaissance.ThoughTuscanyremainedalinguistic,culturalandgeographicconception,ratherthanapoliticalreality,inthe15thcentury,FlorenceextendeditsdominioninTuscanythroughtheannexationofArezzoin1384,thepurchaseofPisain1405andthesuppressionofalocalresistancethere(1406).Livornowasboughtaswell(1421).FromtheleadingcityofFlorence,therepublicwasfrom1434onwarddominatedbytheincreasinglymonarchicalMedicifamily.Initially,underCosimo,PierotheGouty,LorenzoandPierotheUnfortunate,theformsoftherepublicwereretainedandtheMediciruledwithoutatitle,usuallywithoutevenaformaloffice.TheserulerspresidedovertheFlorentineRenaissance.Therewasareturntotherepublicfrom1494to1512,whenfirstGirolamoSavonarolathenPieroSoderinioversawthestate.CardinalGiovannideMediciretookthecitywithSpanishforcesin1512,beforegoingtoRometobecomePopeLeoX.Florencewasdominatedbyaseriesofpapalproxiesuntil1527whenthecitizensdeclaredtherepublicagain,onlytohaveittakenfromthemagainin1530afterasiegebyanImperialandSpanisharmy.AtthispointPopeClementVIIandCharlesVappointedAlessandrodeMediciasthefirstformallyhereditaryruler.TheSienesecommunewasnotincorporatedintoTuscanyuntil1555,andduringthe15thcenturySienaenjoyedaculturalSieneseRenaissancewithitsownmoreconservativecharacter.LuccaremainedanindependentRepublicuntil1847whenitbecamepartofGrandDuchyofTuscanybythewillofitspeople.Piombinowasanotherminorindependentstate,underbothSpanishandTuscaninfluence.ModernEraInthe15thcentury,theMedicis,whoruledFlorence,annexedsurroundinglandtocreatemodernTuscany.TheWarofPolishSuccessioninthe1730smeantthetransferofTuscanyfromtheMedicistoFrancis,DukeofLorraineandHolyRomanEmperor.WiththedissolutionoftheHolyRomanEmpirebyNapoleon,TuscanywasinheritedbytheAustrianEmpireassuccessortotheHolyRomanEmpire.IntheItalianWarsofIndependenceinthe1850s,TuscanywastransferredfromAustriatothenewlyunifiednationofItaly.,10,UnderBenitoMussolini,theareacameunderthedominanceoflocalNationalFascistPartyleaderDinoPerroneCompagni.FollowingthefallofMussoliniandthere-establishmentoftheKingdomofItaly,theItalianSocialRepublicwasestablishedinthenorthernregionsofItaly,withitsdefactoborderattheGothicLine,adefensivepositionjustnorthofFlorence.FollowingtheendoftheSocialRepublic,andthetransitionfromaKingdomtothemodernItalianRepublic,TuscanyoncemoreflourishedasaculturalcenterofItaly.CultureTuscanyhasanimmenseculturalandartisticheritage,expressedintheregionschurches,palaces,artgalleries,museums,villagesandpiazzas.Manyoftheseartifactsarefoundinthemaincities,suchasFlorenceandSiena,butalsoinsmallervillagesscatteredaroundtheregion,suchasSanGimignano.ArtTuscanyhasauniqueartisticlegacy,andFlorenceisoneoftheworldsmostimportantwater-colorcentres,evensothatitisoftennicknamedtheartpalaceofItaly(thecityisalsobelievedtohavethelargestconcentrationofRenaissanceartandarchitectureintheworld).PainterssuchasCimabueandGiotto,thefathersofItalianpainting,livedinFlorenceandTuscanyaswellasArnolfoandAndreaPisano,renewersofarchitectureandsculpture;Brunelleschi,DonatelloandMasaccio,forefathersoftheRenaissance,GhibertiandtheDellaRobbias,FilippoLippiandAngelico;Botticelli,PaoloUccelloandtheuniversalgeniusofLeonardodaVinciandMichelangelo.Theregioncontainsnumerousmuseumsandartgalleries,manyhousingsomeoftheworldsmostpreciousworksofart.SuchmuseumsincludetheUffizi,whichkeepsBotticellisBirthofVenus,thePittiPalace,andtheBargello,tonameafew.Mostofthefrescos,sculpturesandpaintingsinTuscanyareheldintheregionsabundantchurchesandcathedrals,suchasFlorenceCathedral,SienaCathedral,PisaCathedralandtheCollegiatadiSanGimignano.ArtSchoolsInmedievalperiodandintheRenaissance,therewerefourmainTuscanartschoolswhichcompetedagainsteachother:theFlorentineSchool,theSieneseSchool,thePisanSchoolandtheLuccheseSchool.,11,TheSieneseSchoolofpaintingflourishedinSienabetweenthe13thand15thcenturiesandforatimerivaledFlorence,thoughitwasmoreconservative,beinginclinedtowardsthedecorativebeautyandelegantgraceoflateGothicart.ItsmostimportantrepresentativesincludeDuccio,whoseworkshowsByzantineinfluence;hispupilSimoneMartini;PietroandAmbrogioLorenzetti;DomenicoandTaddeodiBartolo;SassettaandMatteodiGiovanni.UnlikethenaturalisticFlorentineart,thereisamysticalstreakinSieneseartwho?,characterizedbyacommonfocusonmiraculousevents,withlessattentiontoproportions,distortionsoftimeandplace,andoftendreamlikecoloration.Inthe16thcenturytheManneristsBeccafumiandIlSodomaworkedthere.WhileBaldassarePeruzziwasbornandtrainedinSiena,hismajorworksandstylereflecthislongcareerinRome.TheeconomicandpoliticaldeclineofSienabythe16thcentury,anditseventualsubjugationbyFlorence,largelycheckedthedevelopmentofSienesepainting,althoughitalsomeantthatmanySieneseworksinchurchesandpublicbuildingswerenotdiscardedordestroyedbynewpaintingsorrebuilding.Sienaremainsaremarkablywell-preservedItalianlate-Medievaltown.TheLuccheseSchool,alsoknownastheSchoolofLuccaandasthePisan-LuccheseSchool,wasaschoolofpaintingandsculpturethatflourishedinthe11thand12thcenturiesinthewesternandsouthernpartoftheregion,withanimportantcenterinVolterra.Theartismostlyanonymous.AlthoughnotaselegantordelicateastheFlorentineSchool,Luccheseworksareremarkablefortheirmonumentality.MusicTuscanyhasarichancientandmodernmusicaltradition,andhasboastednumerouscomposersandmusicians,suchasGiacomoPuccini,andPietroMascagni.BeyondFlorence,thenineotherprovincesintheregionofTuscany,namedforthelargestcityin,andcapitaloftheprovince.Takentogether,theyofferarichmusicalculture.FlorenceisthemainmusicalcentreofTuscany.ThecitywasattheheartofmuchofourentireWesternmusicaltradition.ItwastherethattheFlorentineCamerataconvenedinthemid-16thcenturyandexperimentedwithsettingtalesofGreekmythologytomusicandstagingtheresult:thefirstoperas,fosteringthefurtherdevelopmentoftheoperaticform,andthelaterdevelopmentsofseparateclassicalformssuchasthesymphony.,12,TherearenumerousmusicalcentresinTuscany.ArezzoisindeliblyconnectedwiththenameofGuidodArezzo,the11th-centurymonkwhoinventedmodernmusicalnotationandthedo-re-misystemofnamingnotesofthescale;LuccahostedpossiblythegreatestItaliancomposerofRomanticism,GiacomoPucciniandSienaiswell-knownfortheAccademiaMusicaleChigiana,anorganizationthatcurrentlysponsorsmajormusicalactivitiessuchastheSienaMusicWeekandtheAlfredoCasellaInternationalCompositionCompetition.OtherimportantmusicalcentresinTuscanyincludeLucca,PisaandGrosseto.LiteratureTuscanyhasarenownedliterature,andhasboastedseveralfamouswritersandpoets,mostnotablyFlorentineauthorDante.Tuscanysliterarysceneparticularlythrivedinthe13thcenturyandtheRenaissance.InTuscany,especiallyintheMiddleAges,popularlovepoetryexisted.AschoolofimitatorsoftheSicilianswasledbyDantedaMajano,butitsliteraryoriginalitytookanotherlinethatofhumorousandsatiricalpoetry.Thedemocraticformofgovernmentcreatedastyleofpoetrywhichstoodstronglyagainstthemedievalmysticandchivalrousstyle.DevoutinvocationofGodorofaladycamefromthecloisterandthecastle;inthestreetsofthecitieseverythingthathadgonebeforewastreatedwithridiculeorbitingsarcasm.FolgoredaSanGimignanolaughswheninhissonnetshetellsapartyofSieneseyouthstheoccupationsofeverymonthintheyear,orwhenheteachesapartyofFlorentineladsthepleasuresofeverydayintheweek.CennedellaChitarralaughswhenheparodiesFolgoressonnets.ThesonnetsofRusticodiFilippoarehalf-funandhalf-satire,asistheworkofCeccoAngiolieriofSiena,theoldesthumoristweknow,afar-offprecursorofRabelaisandMontaigne.AnothertypeofpoetryalsobeganinTuscany.GuittonedArezzomadeartabandonchivalryandProvenalformsfornationalmotivesandLatinforms.Heattemptedpoliticalpoetry,andalthoughhisworkisoftenobscure,hepreparedthewayfortheBologneseschool.Bolognawasthecityofscience,andphilosophicalpoetryappearedthere.GuidoGuinizelliwasthepoetafterthenewfashionoftheart.Inhisworktheideasofchivalryarechangedandenlarged.,13,Onlythosewhoseheartispurecanbeblessedwithtruelove,regardlessofclass.Herefutedthetraditionalcredoofcourtlylove,forwhichloveisasubtlephilosophyonlyafewchosenknightsandprincessescouldgrasp.Loveisblindtoblasonsbutnottoagoodheartwhenitfindsone:whenitsucceedsitistheresultofthespiritual,notphysicalaffinitybetweentwosouls.Guinizzellisdemocraticviewcanbebetterunderstoodinthelightofthegreaterequalityandfreedomenjoyedbythecity-statesofthecenter-northandtheriseofamiddleclasseagertolegitimiseitselfintheeyesoftheoldnobility,stillregardedwithrespectandadmirationbutinfactdispossessedofitspoliticalpower.GuinizellisCanzonimakeupthebibleofDolceStilNovo,andoneinparticular,Alcorgentil(ToaKindHeart)isconsideredthemanifestoofthenewmovementwhichwillbloominFlorenceunderCavalcanti,Danteandtheirfollowers.HispoetryhassomeofthefaultsoftheschoolofdArezzo.Nevertheless,hemarksagreatdevelopmentinthehistoryofItalianart,especiallybecauseofhiscloseconnectionwithDanteslyricpoetry.Inthe13thcentury,therewereseveralmajorallegoricalpoems.OneoftheseisbyBrunettoLatini,whowasaclosefriendofDante.HisTesorettoisashortpoem,inseven-syllableverses,rhymingincouplets,inwhichtheauthorprofessestobelostinawildernessandtomeetwithalady,whorepresentsNature,fromwhomhereceivesmuchinstruction.Weseeherethevision,theallegory,theinstructionwithamoralobject,threeelementswhichweshallfindagainintheDivineComedy.FrancescodaBarberino,alearnedlawyerwhowassecretarytobishops,ajudge,andanotary,wrotetwolittleallegoricalpoems,theDocumentidamoreandDelreggimentoedeicostumidelledonne.Thepoemstodayaregenerallystudiednotasliterature,butforhistoricalcontext.AfourthallegoricalworkwastheIntelligenza,whichissometimesattributedtoCompagni,butisprobablyonlyatranslationofFrenchpoems.Inthe15thcentury,humanistandpublisherAldusManutiuspublishedTuscanpoetsPetrarchandDanteAlighieri(TheDivineComedy),creatingthemodelforwhatbecameastandardformodernItalian.,義大利的一個省，全世界最美麗的一個地區Themostbeautifulareaoftheworld.,14,CuisineSimplicityiscentraltotheTuscancuisine.Legumes,bread,cheese,vegetables,mushroomsandfreshfruitareused.OliveoilismadeupofMoraiolo,Leccino,andFrantoianoolives.WhitetrufflesfromSanMiniatoappearinOctoberandNovember.BeefofthehighestqualitycomesfromtheChianaValley,specificallyabreedknownasChianinausedforFlorentinesteak.Porkisalsoproduced.WineisafamousandcommonproduceofTuscany.Chiantiisarguablythemostwell-knowninternationally.SomanyBritishtouristscometotheareawhereChiantiwineisproducedthatthisspecificareahasbeennicknamedChiantishire.,15,TourismManytownsandcitiesinTuscanyhavegreatnaturalandarchitecturalbeauty.Therearemanyvisitorsthroughouttheyear.Asaresult,theservicesanddistributionactivities,soimportanttotheregionseconomy,arewide-rangingandwell-organised.FashionThefashionandtextileindustryarethepillarsoftheFlorentineeconomy.Inthe15thcentury,Florentineswereworkingwithluxurytextilessuchaswoolandsilk.TodaythegreatestdesignersinEuropeutilizethetextilei