二语习得引论 读书笔记 chapter 3

二 主要研究成果Chapter 3. The linguistics of SLA. The nature of language. Early approaches to SLA1. Contrastive Analysis (CA)1). as a beginning of the survey:w aspects of its procedures are still incorporated in more recent approaches.w It introduced the influence of L1 on L2 (Chomsky)2). CA: an approach to the study of SLA which involves predicting and explaining learner problems based on a comparison of L1 and L2 to determine similarities and differences.(Based on idealized linguistic structures attributed to native speakers of L1 and L2)3). influenced by Structuralism and Behaviorism.4). Goal of CA was primarily pedagogical in nature: to increase efficiency in L2 teaching and testing.5). Process:w Describing L1 and L2 at different levelw Analyzing comparable segment of the language for elements that may cause problems for learners (interference)Types of interferenceExamplessame form and meaning;different distribution las palomas blancas (Spanish)the white dovessame meaning; different form kitties小猫们 same meaning; different form and distribution water (n. v.)水（名 ）different form; partial overlap in meaningleg腿，蹄，下肢 similar form;different meaningasistir (Spanish “to attend”)assist (English “to help”)6). Assessment:w Cannot explain the logical problem of language learning (how learners know more than theyve heard and been taught)w Not always validated by evidence from actual learner errors.w Stimulated the preparation of comparative grammarw Its analytic procedures have been usefully applied to descriptive studies and to translation2. Error analysis (EA)1). EA: the first approach to the study of SLA which includes an internal focus on learners creative ability to construct language. (based on the description and analysis of actual learner errors in L2)2). CAEAw Predictions by CA not always correct; many real learner errors are not transferred from L1w Focus on surface-level forms and patternsunderlying rulesw Behaviorismmentalism (emphasis on the innate capacity)w Teaching concerns as motivation3). Procedures for analyzing learner errors:w Collection of a sample of learner languagew Identification of errorsw Description of errorsw Explanation of errorsw Evaluation of errors4). Shortcomingsw Ambiguity in classificationw Lack of positive dataw Potential for avoidance3. Interlanguage (IL)1). IL refers to the intermediate states (interim grammars) of a learners language as it moves toward the target L2.2). Characteristics:w Systematicw Dynamicw Variablew Reduced system, both in form and function3). Differences between SLA and L1 acquisition by childrenw Language transfer from L1 to L2w Transfer of training, or how the L2 is taughtw Strategies of 2nd language learningw Overgeneralization of the target language linguistic materials4). L1 as fossilization for L2 learners: w Fossilization: the probability that theyll cease their IL development in some respects before they reach target language norms, in spite of continuing L2 input and passage time.w Relates to: the age of learning; social identity; communicative need.4. Morpheme order studies1). Refers to： an important Q in the study of SLA, whether there is a natural order (or universal sequence) in the grammatical development of L2 learners.2). Inflection: it adds one or more units of meaning to the base form of a word, to give it a more specific meaning. (plural nouns, past tense etc.)3). The order of morpheme acquisition reported was similar in L1 and L2It supports an Identity Hypothesis (L1=L2): that processes involved in L1 and L2 acquisition are the same.4). The concept of natural order remains very important for understanding SLA. (both from linguistic and cognitive approaches)5. Monitor model1). One of the last of the early approaches which has an internal focus in the Monitor Model.(Stephen Krashen)2). It explicitly and essentially adopts the notion of a language acquisition device (LAD) (Chomsky used for childrens innate knowledge of language)3). Krashens approach: 5 hypotheses6. Consensus:1). What is being acquired in SLA is a “rule0governed” language systems2). How SLA take place involves creative mental processes.3). Why some learners are more (less) successful in SLA than others relates primarily to the age of the learner. Universal Grammar (UG)1. UG (Chomsky): what all languages have in common.1). Two important conceptsw linguistic competence (speaker-hearers underlying knowledge of language) needs to be accounted for LA w such knowledge of language what could be learned from the input. (the logic problem of language learning/ the poverty-of-the stimulus argument)2). The nature of speaker-hearers competence in native language can be explained only by innate knowledge that human genetically endowed with.3). The innate knowledge is in the language faculty Language faculty: a component of the human mind, physically represented in the brain and part of the biological endowment of the species.2. Principles and Parameters1). With Chomskys reconceptualization of UG in the Principles and Parameters framework often called the Government and Binding (GB) model and the subsequent introduction of the Minimalist program, there came a new idea about the acquisition process.2). UG has been conceptualized as a set of principles which are properties of all languages in the world. Some of these principles contain parameters3). What is acquired in L1 acquisition (not UG itself):LA includes a process of selecting among the limited parametric options in UG that match the settings which are encountered in linguistic input. 4). How acquisition occurs for children: natural; instinctive; internal to the cognitive system5). Why some learners are more successful: Irrelevant with L1 acquisition, for all native speakers attain essentially the same final state. (For SLA, attitudes; motivation and social context matters)3. UG and SLAStatesUGSLAInitial stateMake parametric choices that are appropriate for L1 (Guided by UG)L1 transferNature and development of interlanguageFinal stateNative language;sameWhy more successful relevant to L2:w The degree of access to UGw Relationships between L1&L2 differential transfer or interferencew L2 input qualityw Degree of perceptionw Degree of specification for lexical features. Functional approaches1. Functional approach1). Based on: the framework of Functionalism2). Characteristics of functional approaches to SLAw Focus on the use of language in real situations (performance) and underlying knowledge (competence)w Assumption: purpose of language is communication; LA and SLA require communicative usew Concern about the sentence, discourse structure, how language is used in interaction; include aspects of communication beyond language2. Systemic linguistics (M.A.K.Halliday)1). Systemic linguistics is a model for analyzing language in terms of the interrelated systems of choices that are available for expressing meaning.“language acquisition needs to be seen as the mastery of linguistic functions”2). What language learners acquire: meaning potential3). Process of acquisition: w mastering certain basic functions of languagew developing a meaning potential for each4). pragmatic functions development in L1 acquisition:instrumental regulatory interactional personal heuristic imagination representational5). linguistic structures: directly reflections of the functions that language serves; related to the social and personal needs3. Functional Typology1). Based on: the comparative study of a wide range of the worlds language2). Goal: to describe patterns of similarities and differences among languages; to determine which types and patterns occur more/less frequently or are universal in distribution.3). Application: why some L2 constructions are more/less difficult than others for L2 learners to acquire; for the selectivety of crosslinguistic influence or transfer4). important concept: markedness (deals with whether any specific feature of language is marked or unmarked)5). Markedness differential prediction for SLAFeature in L1Feature in L2Prediction MarkedUnmarked (common)L2 feature will be easy to learnL1 feature will not transfer to L2UnmarkedMarkedL1 feature will transfer to L2In L1 acquisition, unmarked before markedIn SLA, unmarked elements are easier to master than marked ones.6). Compared with CA:w Functional typology goes beyond the surface-level structural (CA) to more abstract patterns, principles and constraints; w the Markedness Differential Hypothesis7). implications:w some aspects of some languages are more difficultw why some types and patterns of features are more/less frequent in native and 2nd language (factors: perceptual salience, ease of cognitive processing, physical constraints, communicative needs)4. Function-to-form mapping1). Basic concept: L1 and L2 acquisition involves a process of grammaticalization.2). Grammaticalization: a grammatical function is first conveyed by shared extralinguistic knowledge and inferencing based on the context of discourse, then by a lexical word, and only later by a grammatical marker. Driven by: communicative need and use.Related to : the development of more efficient cognitive process3). Pragmatic mode: a style of expressing meaning which relies more on context.Syntactic mode: a s