the-origin-of-western-culture西方文化的起源.ppt

Chapter1TheOriginofWesternCulture,1ThePrehistoricCultureofEurope,1.1CulturalModalityandFeaturesofPaleolithicPeriod(旧石器时代)1.2CulturalModalityandFeaturesofNeolithicPeriod（新石器时代）,1.1CulturalModalityandFeaturesofPaleolithicPeriod,ThePaleolithicperiod,orOldStoneAge,wasthefirstperiodinthedevelopmentofhumantechnologyoftheStoneAge.Itwasthelongestphaseofhumanhistory.ItbeganwiththeintroductionofthefirststonetoolsbyHomosapiensandlasteduntiltheintroductionofagriculture.,Livingconditionswerehardandthenaturewascrueltohumanbeing.ByfarthemostoutstandingfeatureofthePaleolithicperiodwastheevolutionofthehumanspeciesfromanapelikecreature,ornearhuman,totrueHomosapiens.Thisdevelopmentwasexceedinglyslowandcontinuedthroughthethreesuccessivedivisionsoftheperiod,theLower,Middle,andUpperPaleolithic.,Socialorganizationnecessarilywasassimpleaspoliticalorganization,ifindeedthetwocanbedistinguishedatthisstage.Notonlywastheresexequalityamongthefoodgatherersbuttherewerealsostrongkinshiptiesgatherers.Primitivehumanswerebasicallyahistoricalandnonevolutionaryintheirattitudestowardthemselvesandtheirsociety.,Primitivehumanswereveryknowledgeableconcerningnature.Despitetheirabundantfirst-handcontactwithandknowledgeofnature,earlyhumanshadlittleexplanatoryknowledge;theycouldgivenonaturalisticexplanationiffloodsordroughtscameorifthehuntingorfishingwaspoor.Paleolithictechnology,however,wasnotproductiveenoughtosupportanythingapproachingahierarchyofpriests,sonocohesivetheologycouldbedeveloped.,1.2CulturalModalityandFeaturesofNeolithicPeriod,TheNeolithicperiodorthenewStoneAgedesignatesastageofculturalevolutionortechnologicaldevelopmentcharacterizedbytheuseofstonetools,theexistenceofsettledvillageslargelydependentondomesticatedplantsandanimals,andthepresenceofsuchcraftsaspotteryandweaving.,TheterminationoftheNeolithicperiodismarkedbysuchinnovationsastheriseofurbancivilizationortheintroductionofmetaltoolsorwriting.NeolithichumansdifferedfromtheirPaleolithicpredecessorsintwoaspects:theymadestonetoolsbygrindingandpolishingratherthanbychippingandfracturing;and,evenmoreimportant,theyobtainedfoodwhollyorprimarilyfromagricultureand/orstockraisingratherthanfromhuntinganimalsorgatheringplants.,NeolithicvillagelifewasatimewhenpeoplemadetechnologicalprogressataninfinitelymorerapidratethanintheprecedingPaleolithicperiod.ThebasicsocialunitoftheNeolithicvillagecustomarilywasthehouseholdconsistingoftwoormoremarriedcouplesandtheirchildren.ThedistinctivefeatureoftheNeolithicvillagewassocialhomogeneity.,Theequalityintribalsocialrelationsextendedalsototribalgenderrelations.Turningfinallytoreligion,thenewlifeofthesoiltillersgaverisetonewbeliefsandnewgods.Almosteverywheretherewasagoddessoftheearthoroffertilitytheearthmother.,2.TheAegeanCulture(爱琴文化),2.1TheDiscoveryofAegeanCulture2.2TheMinoanCulture(克里特文化):theIslandofCrete2.3TheMycenaeanCulture（迈锡尼文化）2.4AchievementsofAegeanCulture,2.1TheDiscoveryofAegeanCulture,TheAegeanSeaisthebranchoftheMediterraneanbetweenGreeceandTurkey,extendingasfarsouthasCrete;theDardanellesconnectsitwiththeSeaofMarmara,inturnlinkedwiththeBlackSeaviatheBosporus.ThediscoveryofAegeancultureisagreatachievementofmodernarchaeology.,In1870theGermanamateurarchaeologistHeinrichSchliemannbeganexcavatingHissarlik,amoundinTurkey,andfoundwhatarebelievedtobetheruinsofTroy.In1900theBritisharchaeologistSirArthurEvansdiscoveredahugepalacecomplexatKnossos,Crete,thatheassociatedwithKingMinosandthelabyrinth.TheexistenceofacivilizationthathadconnectionswithboththemainlandandCreteisindicatedbyartifactsfoundintheCyclades.BecauseofthediscoveryofAegeanculture,thehistoryofancientGreekcantracetoafurtherage,whichmakesGreekoneofthemostimportantbirthplaces.,2.2TheMinoanCulture:theIslandofCrete,TheMinoanculturewasanancientculturethatsurvivedontheislandofCreteofwhatisnowGreeceforalmost2000yearsuntilabout1450BC.ThereareanumberofpowerfulreasonsforstudyingtheMinoanculture.ThebestreasonrelatestothepowerfulinfluencethattheMinoanculturehadonthelaterclassicalGreekculture.Anotherreasonrelatestothemythofapeacefulculturethatoccurredintheprehistoricpastandwaslaterswallowedupbythesea.,TheMythoftheMinotaurmayprovideacluetothesuppressionoftheMinoanCivilization.AnimportantfeatureoftheMinoancultureisthestatusaffordedtowomen.Anotherfactrelatestothenauticalnatureoftheculture.DressfortheMinoanswasfairlylightwithmaleswearinglittlemorethanaloincloth.Dressforthewomenwasmoreelaborate.,2.3TheMycenaeanCulture,Mycenaeancivilizationischaracterizedbythelargepalace-likebuildingsthattheycreated.TheMycenaeansdependedontradetosustaintheireconomyandtodrivetheirindustry.TheMycenaeanswereanaggressivesociety.Mycenaeansocietydevelopedinatimeofeconomicandpoliticalexpansion.,2.4AchievementsofAegeanCulture,TheartisthemostprominentevidenceoftheachievementoftheAegeanculture.Itisremarkableforitsnaturalisticpictorialstyle,originatedinMinoanCrete;themovementandvarietyofMinoanart,eveninitsearlierabstractphases,suggestlivingthings.FromCrete,thisstylespreadtotheotherAegeanislandsandtheGreekmainland,whereitwasmodifiedbygeometrictendencies.TherhythmicpulsethatcharacterizesAegeanartsuggestsadeepreverenceforthedivinitiesofnature.,Architecture:TheorganicqualityofMinoanstyleisseenmostclearlyinthepalacesofCrete.PaintingandSculpture:Paintingisfoundintwoforms,thevividfrescoesonthepalacewallsandthegracefuldesignsthatdecorateMinoanpottery.SurvivingMinoansculpture,withafewexceptions,islargelyrestrictedtostatuettesandfigurinesinvariousmaterialsandtointaglio-cutsemipreciousstoneseals.,PotteryandMetalwork:withthebuildingofthegreatCretanpalacescamethedevelopmentofpotteryasaluxuryart.TheartoffinemetalworkingalsodevelopedinMinoanCrete.,3TheAncientNearEasternCulture,3.1TheEnvironmentandtheAncientNearEasternCulture3.2TheMesopotamiaCulture(美索不达米亚文化)3.3TheAncientEgyptianCulture3.4InfluencesoftheAncientNearEasternCultureonWesternCulture,3.1TheEnvironmentandtheAncientNearEasternCulture,Thedevelopmentofcities,writing,andwrittenlawcode,andmore,happenedfirstinthepartoftheworldwecalltheancientNearEast.TheancientNearEastwasaregionofgreatdiversity.ItstretchedfromtheeasternshoreoftheMediterraneantotheeasternborderofpresentdayIran,butitwasneveronebigcountry.ThetwocentersintheNileandintheTigris-Euphratesvalleysweregeographicallyclose,forbothlayinthisregion.TheseNearEasternvalleyswere,inthetime-honoredphrase,the“cradlesofwesterncivilization”.,3.2TheMesopotamiaCulture,MesopotamiaisaGreekwordmeaning“landbetweenthetworivers”.TheresuccessivecivilizationsSumerian,Akkadian,andBabylonianflourishedinMesopotamianfornearlyfifteenhundredyears.,Thousandsofclaytabletsinscribedwiththewedge-shapedsymbolsofSumerianscripthavebeenuncoveredinMesopotamia,indicatingthattheSumerianshaddevelopedaformofwritingby3000BCMesopotamianreligionhadthreeimportantcharacteristics.Itwaspolytheisticmanygodsandgoddessesexistedandoftencompetedwithoneanother;itwasanthropomorphicthedeitiespossessedhumanformandhadtheirownpersonalitiesanduniquetraits;anditwaspantheistichundredsofdivinitieswerefoundeverywhere,innatureandtheuniverse.Ofthesurvivingepics,tales,andlegendsthatofferglimpsesintotheMesopotamianmind,themostfamousisTheEpicofGilgamesh.,Mesopotamiaalsogavetheworldthefirstknownliteraryfigure,Enheduanna,anAkkadianpoetwhowroteintheSumerianlanguage.TheMesopotamiansproducedthefairestlawcodespriortothatoftheHebrews.TheartofMesopotamia,liketherestofitsculture,evolvedfromSumerianstylestotheAkkadianandBabylonianschools.Incontrasttothefinelycraftedsculpture,Mesopotamianarchitectureoftenseemsuninspired,particularlythedomesticarchitecture.,3.3TheAncientEgyptianCulture,Anothergreatriver,theNile,providedthesettingforEgyptianculture.UnlikethecultureoftheMesopotamianvalley,however,Niloticcultureevolvedcontinuously,respondingmainlytointernalchangesratherthantoexternalinfluences.Itthusachievedaunifiedcharacterthatlastedforaboutthreethousandyears.Isolatedbydesertsoneitherside,Egyptdevelopedanintrospectiveattitudethatwaslittleinfluencedbyneighboringculturesandthatledtoasenseofculturalsuperiority.,Egyptwasatheocracy,orastateruledbyagod.TheforemostdistinguishingmarkofEgyptianreligionwasitspromiseofimmortalityabeliefthatgeneratedamoreoptimisticattitudetowardhumanexistencethanthatfoundinMesopotamia.EgyptianliteratureproducednosinglegreatworkthatrivalsGilgamesh,buttheEgyptianexperiencewasrichinitsvarietyofliterarygenres,ortypesofliterature.,TheclassicEgyptianbuildingwasthepyramid,whoseshapeseemedtoembodyaconstantandeternalorder.Ratherthanbeingartforartssake,Egyptianpaintingandsculptureservedasameanstoareligiousend,3.4InfluencesoftheAncientNearEasternCultureonWesternCulture,Intheseeasternmonarchies,therenonethelessgrewuphabits,techniques,beliefs,andinstitutionsthatarestillapartofwesternerslivestoday.Mostconspicuously,theregrewupanelaboratestructureofdomesticandinternationaltrade.,Merchants,thoughnotclearlyatthetopofthesocialorderwithpriestandnobles,were,especiallyattimesinMesopotamia,almostatthetop.FromsuchasocietycamethegreatcontributionoftheancientNearEasttowesternersdailyliving,thealphabet.Writingitselfwasinlargepartanachievementofpriests,whoneededtokeeprecordsofthewealthintheirtemples.,4TheHebrewCulture希伯来文化,4.1HebrewsandJudaism4.2TheContentandEvolutionoftheOldTestament(旧约)4.3TheReligionofHebrewEthics,4.1HebrewsandJudaism,Judaismisoneoftheoldestlivingreligionsintheworld.ItoriginatedinthethirdmillenniumBCamongatribalMiddleEasternpeoplewhoplacedthemselvesatthecenterofworldhistoryandcreatedsacredtextsforpassingontheirheritage.Unlikethehistoryandreligionofotherancientpeoples,thehistoryandreligionoftheHebrewsaresoinextricablyconnectedthattheycannotbeseparated.,Judaismwasmonotheistic,teachingabeliefinoneGod.JewsbelievedthatGodhadmadeacovenant,orbindingagreement,withAbraham.Asaresult,JewsconsideredthemselvestobeGods“chosenpeople”.Judaismisnumberedamongtheworldsmajorreligionsforitsuniquecontributiontoreligiousthoughtaswellasitsinfluenceontwolaterreligions,ChristianityandIslam.,4.2TheContentandEvolutionoftheOldTestament,TheJewsenshrinedtheircultural