基础英语写作(三)ppt课件

PartThree,TheParagraph,1,Aparagraphisaunitofthought;itisatonceaunityinitselfandpartofalargerwhole,thatis,theessay.Aparagraphislikeamini-essay;itshouldbeunified,coherentandwelldeveloped.,2,Aparagraphisunifiedwhenallthesentencesintheparagrapharefocusedononecentralthoughtoronasingletopic;whenthewriterwishestointroduceanewthoughtortopic,heshouldbeginanewparagraph.Aparagraphiscoherentwhenitdevelopsnaturallyandsmoothly,andonesentenceleadslogicallytoanother.Therearemanywaystodevelopaparagraph,forexample,byprocess,bycauseandeffect,bycomparisonandcontrast,etc.,3,.EffectiveParagraphs1.Unity,Unityofaparagraphisconcernedwithitscontent.Ifallthesentencesintheparagraphleadtoonecentraltheme,theparagraphisunified.Thecentralthemeisusuallysummarizedinwhatiscalledthetopicsentence.Itoftenappearsatthebeginningoftheparagraph;however,itmayalsobefoundinthemiddleorattheendofaparagraph.,4,Forinstance:,Ivedonemyshareofleaningontheirshouldersovertheyears.IneverfelttherewasanythingIcouldnttellmyMomandDad,andIamthekindwhohastogetitalloutwhenIhaveaproblem.Overtheyearstheyvehearditall:thetimeinjuniorhighwhenoneboywasconstantlybuggingme,thetimeinhighschoolwhenIgotcaughtdrinking,thetimeIwreckedtheirVolkswagenRabbit,roughtimeswithmyformerboyfriend,andonandon.,5,Exercises:Findoutthetopicsentenceofthefollowingparagraph:,Therearetwofactorswhichdetermineanindividualsintelligence.Thefirstisthesortofbrainheisbornwith.Humanbrainsdifferconsiderably,somebeingmorecapablethanothers.Butnomatterhowgoodabrainhehastobeginwith,anindividualwillhavealoworderofintelligenceunlesshehasopportunitiestolearn.,6,Sothesecondfactoriswhathappenstotheindividualthesortofenvironmentinwhichheisbroughtup.Ifanindividualisinpoorenvironment,itislikelythathisbrainwillfailtodevelopandhewillneverattainthelevelofintelligenceofwhichheiscapable.,7,Exercises.Crossoutthesentencethatisnotconnectedtothetopicofthisparagraph:,Booksareplacedonthelibraryshelvesinnumericalorder.Inotherwords,allthebooksononesubjectareputtogetherunderthesamenumber;forexample,allbooksonUnitedStateshistoryarenumbered973,andareplacedtogetheronthe973shelforshelves.Ofcourse,suchbooksareborrowedmostlybystudentswholearnhistory.,8,2.Coherence,Coherenceofaparagraphisconcernedwithitsform,oritsorganization.Thesentencesinaparagraphshouldbearrangedinaclear,logicalorder,andthetransitionsshouldbesmoothandnatural.Asaresult,thereaderfindsiteasytofollowthewriterstrainofthoughtandunderstandwhatheistalkingabout.,9,Forinstance:,Thereissomefeelingnowadaysthatreadingisnotasnecessaryasitoncewas.Radioandespeciallytelevisionhavetakenoverfunctionsonceservedbypaintingandothergraphicarts.Admittedly,televisionservessomeofthesefunctionsextremelywell;thevisualcommunicationofnewsevents,forexample,hasenormousimpact.,10,Theabilityofradiotogiveusinformationwhileweareengagedindoingotherthingsforinstance,drivingacarisremarkable,andagreatsavingoftime.Butitmaybeseriouslyquestionedwhethertheadventofmoderncommunicationsmediahasmuchenhancedourunderstandingoftheworldinwhichwelive.,11,Exercise:,Listedbelowareacontrollingideaandninesentencesthatdevelopthecontrollingidea.Renumberthesentencestoarrangetheminwhatyouthinkisthebestorder;thencomposeaparagraph,usingthecontrollingideaasyourfirstsentence.,12,Thecontrollingidea:SinceIbeganlivinginanapartmentandgoingtoschool,mybiggestproblemhasbeenthehousework.,13,a）Cookingmyfoodisabiggerproblem.b）Theworstproblemisdoingmylaundry.c）Cleaningtheapartmentisnottoobad;althoughittakestimeawayfrommystudies;atleastwhenIfinishtheapartmentlooksnice.,14,d）Sometimesthefoodisburned,sometimesitisnotcookedenough,andsometimesIhavenotmeasuredcorrectly,sothefoodtastesterrible.e）ShoppingformyfoodismoredifficultbecauseIdontknowtheEnglishnamesofmanyfoods,andoftenIhavetospendextratimeaskingforhelp.f）TheLaundromatisfarfrommyapartment,andIwastemuchvaluabletime.,15,g）Ihaveneverhadtocookbefore,andusuallytheresultsarediscouraging.h）MostlyIamembarrassedasIsitintheLaundromatwithallthewomen,andsoIwaituntilallmyclothesaredirtybeforeIdothisterribletask.i）Ialsohavetroublewiththecomplicatedinstructions,sooccasionallyIendupwithpinksocksorashirtthatistoosmall.,16,3.Transition,Coherencemaynotbeperfectevenifthewriterarrangeshissentencesinaclear,logicalorder.Hehastousegoodtransitionssothatonesentencerunssmoothlytoanother.,17,Thefollowingwaysmayhelpthewritertoproduceafluentparagraph:,A)Usingparallelstructures;B)Repeatingwordsorwordsgroups;C)Usingpronounstorefertonounsinprecedingsentences;,18,D)Beingconsistentinthepersonandnumberofnounsandpronouns,andthetenseofverbs;E)Usingtransitionalexpressions,19,a)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforspatialdevelopment:,abovebeforemehereontheleftbelowthereinthedistanceontherightnearbynexttoontopofdowncloseto,20,b)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforchronologicaldevelopment:,first,second,etcsooneventuallyinthemeantimethenfinallyafteranintervalnowafterpresentlylateratlast,21,c)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforanalyticaldevelopment:,first,second,etcforthispurposeasaresultfurthermoremoreoverbutconsequentlyotherwiselikewiseforinstanceinadditiononthecontraryinthiscaseontheotherhandthusinconclusiontherefore,22,d)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcomparison:,anotherfurthermoreequallyimportantbesidesaccordinglyinfactinthesamewayinadditiontosimilarly,23,e)Connectivesandtransitionalphrasesforcontrasts:,onthecontrarydifferentfromincontrastinspiteofwhereasyet,butnotonlybutalsothisthattheformerthelattersomeothersstillothersontheonehandontheotherhandthefirstwhereasthesecond,24,Exercise:Readthefollowingpassagesandidentifythegrammaticalandlexicalcohesivedevicesinthem.,Understandingandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfunisoneofthemostliberatingrealizationswecanevercometo.Itliberatestime:nowwecandevotemorehourstoactivitiesthatcangenuinelyincreaseourhappiness.,25,Itliberatesmoney:buyingthatnewcarorthosefancyclothesthatwilldonothingtoincreaseourhappinessnowseemspointless.Itliberatesusfromenvy:wenowunderstandthatallthoserichandglamorouspeopleweweresosurearehappybecausetheyarealwayshavingsomuchfunactuallymaynotbehappyatall.,26,Key:Atleastsixcohesivedevicesareemployedinthispassage.,1).Usepronounstoreplacenounornounphrases.e.g.Understandandacceptingthattruehappinesshasnothingtodowithfunit;thoserichandglamorouspeoplethey.2).Usedeterminers(the,this,that,etc)torefertopreviousnounphrases.e.g.Thatnewcar;thosefancyclothes;thoserichandglamorouspeople.3).Repeatthekeywords.e.g.happiness;fun;liberate.,27,4).Usesynonymsorwordsofsimilarmeaningtoexpressthesameidea.e.g.understandingaccepting;timehours;realizationunderstand;moneybuy.5.)userelatedwordforms.e.g.Liberatingliberated,happinesshappy;usourwe6).useparallelstructures.e.g.Itliberatedtime.itliberatedmoneyitliberatedusfromenvy,28,Exercise:Readthefollowingparagraphcarefully.Inserttransitionalexpressionswherenecessary.,YankelovichhelpsexplainthedilemmaofAmericanworkers.Mostwanttodotheirbest.Theydonotworkashardastheycould.Theyfeelthatothersreceivethebenefitoftheirhardwork.Yankelovichdoesntseethisattitudeasasignofaweakworkethic.,29,Hefeelstheattitudetowardworkwouldchangeifworkersmademoreofthedecisionsthataffecttheirwork.ThereisamessageformanagersinYankelovichsfindings.Managersneedtoallowworkerstoexpresstheirneeds.Theyneedtolistentowhatworkerssay.,30,.WaysofDevelopingParagraph,1.PlanningaParagraphParagraphsneedtobeplanned.First,thinkofthetopicorthemeofmainidea,andexpressitinacompletesentence(topicsentence).Thenthinkofthedetailsorexamplesorfactsthatmaybeusedtosupportorexplainthemainidea.Arrangetheminlogicalorder,andyouhavearoughplanoftheparagraph.,31,2.DevelopmentbyTime,Intellingastoryorrecountinganevent,theeasiestandclearestwayistodescribethingsinorderoftime:earlierthingsarementionedbeforelaterthings,thefirstthingfirstandthelastthinglast.Thismethodisalsocalledchronologicalsequencing.,32,Forinstance:,MyheartgavealeapwhenIheardtheannouncementthatourtrainwouldsoonarriveatitsdestinationBejing.Likeotherpassengers,Ibegantocollectmythingsandputmymug,towel,atlas,apples,andotherthingsintomybag.Tothetuneofabeautifulsongthetrainpulledintothestationandgentlystoppedbyaplatform.,33,Iwalkedoutofthetrainandwascarriedforwardbythestreamofpeopleintoanundergroundpassageandthenintoabighall.AsIsteppedoutofthestation,IwasdazzledbythebrightautumnskiesofBeijing.ThoughIhadbeenonthetrainformorethanthirtyhoursandspentasleeplessnight,Ididntfeeltiredatall,andIbelievedmydaysinBeijingwouldbeassunnyastheskies.,34,3.DevelopmentbyProcess,Whenyouhavetoexplainhowsomethingisdone,youusuallyfollowachronologicalsequenceandgiveastep-by-stepdescription.Asthestepsmustoccuroneafteranother,theexactorderinwhichtheyarecarriedoutismostimportant.,35,Forexample:,Onceyouencounterapersonwhohasstoppedbreathing,youshouldbeginimmediatelytodomouth-to-mouthbreathing.First,placethevictimonhisbackandremoveanyforeignmatterfromhismouthwithyourfingers.Thentilthisheadbackwards,sothathischinispointingup.,36,Next,pullhismouthopenandhisjawforward,pinchhisnostrilsshuttopreventtheairwhichyoublowintohismouthfromescapingthroughhisnose.Thenplaceyourmouthtightlyoverthevictims.Blowintohismouthuntilyouseehischestrise.Thenturnyourheadtothesideandlistenfortheoutrushofairwhichindicatesanairexchange.Repeattheprocess.,37,4.DevelopmentbySpace,Beforewebegintodescribeaplace,whetheritisalargecountryorasmallroom,wehavetodecideontheorderinwhichtonamethedifferentpartsordetails.Forthisweshouldfindoutthespacerelationshipsbetweenthemandarrangeourdescriptionaccordingly.Itwouldonlyconfusethereadertomentiontheminahaphazardway.,38,Forinstance:,Mr.Cook,arenownedAmericanhistorian,arrangesthebooksonhisbookshelvesinauniqueway.Intheupperrighthandcorner,therearebooksaboutthedevelopmentoftheearlycoloniesinNewEnglandandtheWarofIndependence.Rightunderthemcanbefoundbooksontheslavetrade,theplantationsystemandthegrowthofthesouthernstates.,39,TheleftsideoftheshelfcontainshundredsofbooksconcerningsubjectsoftheWestwardMovement,Indianculture,thecowboyscontributionstoAmericansocietyandtheGoldRushinCalifornia.Formthedescriptionabove,onecanseethatMr.CookeregardshisbookshelvesasmapoftheU.S.andarrangeshishistorybooksaccordingly.Itisodd,butitisconvenient.,40,5.DevelopmentbyExampleorGeneralization,Supportingatopicsentencewithexamplesorillustrationsmakesageneralstatementspecificandeasytounderstand.Anillustrationisacase,aspecimen,aninstance.Vividillustrationlightupabstractideasandmakethemclear,interesting,memorable,orconvincing.,41,Ifaparagraphstartswithatopicsentence,thendetailedexamplesorillustrationsaregiventobackuptheopeningstatement,thisisgeneral-to-specificpattern.,42,Forinstance:,Mylittleniece,aten-monthbaby,isthemostlovelychildIhaveeverseen.Herfaceislikearedappleandhereyesarelikebrightstars.Whenyoucarryherinyourarms,shelikestoputherarmsaroundyourneck.Allthegrownupsinthefamilyloveherverymuchandoftentrytomakehersmile.Butquiteoftenitisshewhomakesuslaugh.OnceIwinkedatherandshesmiled.,43,WhenIdiditagain,shewatchedmeattentively.Thenshetriedtoimitate.Whileweclosedoneeyetowink,shehadtoclosebotheyesatthesametime,andthenquicklyopenedthemagain.Andthatwasherwaytowink.Weallburstintolaughter.Whenwelookedatheragain,shewasstaringatus,puzzled,asifshewasasking:“Whatareyoulaughingat?”,44,Anotherpossiblearrangementofdetails(orexamples)inaparagraphisfromthespecifictothegeneral.Thedetailsarementionedfirst,andthegeneralstatement,whichmaybethetopicsentence,comesattheendoftheparagraph,summarizingthemainideaoftheparagraph.,45,Forexample:,Whetheryoudoordonotopenagiftinthepresenceofthegiver;whetheryoushouldorshouldnotturntheplateovertolookatthemakerssymbolontheback;whetheryoueatasquietlyorasnoisilyaspossible;whetheryoucarryonaconversationduringameal;whetheryouwalkinfrontoforbehindaseatedperson;,46,whetheritisafriendlyoranoffensivegesturetoputyourhandonthearmsofthepersonwithwhomyouaretalkingtheseandathousandotherquestionsaremattersofculturaldefinition.Noneoftheminherentlyrightorwrong,andnoneisgoodorbadmannersexceptassocietydefinesitso.,47,6.DevelopmentbyComparisonandContrast,Themethodofcomparisonandcontrastisoftenused.WecomparethepresentandthepastofChina,theculturesoftheeastandwest,ChineseandEnglish.Bycomparisonandcontrastingwemaygetaclearerpictureofthings.,48,Strictlyspeaking,acomparisonpointsoutthesimilaritiesbetweentwoormorepersonsorthingsofthesameclass,whileacontrast,thedifferencesbetweenthem.Inpractice,however,comparisonandcontrastoftenappeartogether,becausepeoplegenerallycomparetwothingsthataresimilarincertainwaysanddifferentinothers.,49,Forinstance:,SomeolepeopleareoppressedbythefearofdeathThebestwaytoovercomeitsoatleastitseemstomeistomakeyourinterestsgraduallywiderandmoreimpersonal,untilbitbybitthewallsoftheegorecede,andyourlifebecomesincreasinglyemergedintheuniversallife.Anindividualhumanexistenceshouldbelikeariversmallatfirst,narrowlycontainedwithinitsbanks,andrushingpassionatelypastrocksandoverwaterfalls.,50,Graduallytherivergrowswider,thebanksrecede,thewatersflowmorequietlyandintheend,withoutanyvisiblebreak,theybecomemergedinthesea,andpainlesslylosetheirindividualbeing.Themanwho,inoldage,canseehislifeinthisway,willnotsufferfromthefearofdeath,sincethethingshecaresforwillcontinue.(BertrandRussell),51,7.DevelopmentbyCauseandEffect,Inourdailyconversation,questionswithwhyareoftenaskedandanswered.Thisshowsthatcausalanalysisisverycommon;itissomethingwearefamiliarwith.,52,Therearetwobasicwaysoforganizingparagraphsdevelopedbycauseandeffect.Thefirstmethodistostateaneffectanddevotetherestoftheparagraphtoexaminingthecause.,53,Forinstance:,thetopicsentenceis:“Inthepastfewyears,highereducationhasbecomelessimportanttoyoungpeoplethanitwaspreviously.”Thisisaneffect.Itshouldbefollowedbyadiscussionofthecausesofthiseffect,suchas“thepressureoffiercecompetition,betteropportunitiesinthejobmarket,muchoftheknowledgetaughtinuniversitiesandcollegesbeingout-dated”,andsoforth.,54,Thesecondmethodistostateacauseandthenmentionorpredicttheeffects.,Supposethetopicsentenceis:“MoreandmorefertilelandinChinaistakenupbynewbuildings.”Intherestoftheparagraphtheeffectsofthisdevelopmentshouldbementioned,suchas“thereductionofthegrainoutput,increasingenvironmentalproblems,toomanypeasantsmovingintothecities”,etc.,55,8.DevelopmentbyClassification,Toclassifyistosortthingsintocategoriesaccordingtotheircharacteristics.Weclassifymanythings:trees,rivers,cities,companies,collegestudents.Wegroupthingsaccordingtotheirsimilaritiesanddifferences.,56,Parallelismisessentialtoagoodclassification.Forexample,ifweclassifytypesofsports,wemayspeakoftrackadfieldevents,swimming,ballgames,gymnastics,etc.ifweclassifysportsintojumping,ballgames,running,floorexerciseandbackstroke,wewouldviolateparallelism,forballgamesshouldbeconsideredageneralcategory,57,whilejumpingandrunningaresubcategoriesofthetrackandfieldevents;gymnasticsisageneralcategory,andfloorexerciseaparticularformofit.Inshort,inagoodclassificationthepartsmustbeparallel,andtheyshouldadduptothewhole.,58,Forinstance:,Therearethreekindsofbookowners.Thefirsthasallthestandardsetsandbest-sellersunread,untouched.Thisdeludedindividualownswoodpulpandink,notbooks.Thesecondhasagreatmanybooksafewofthemreadthrough,mostofthemdippedinto,butallofthemascleanasshinyasthedaytheywerebought.,59,Thispersonwouldprobablyliketomakebookshisown,butisrestrainedbyafalserespectfortheirphysicalappearance.Thethirdhasafewbooksormanyeveryoneofthemdog-earedanddilapidated,shakenandloosenedbycontinualuse,markedandscribbledinfromfronttoback.(MortimerJ.Adler),60,9.DevelopmentbyDefinition,Sometimes,toavoidconfusionormisunderstanding,wehavetodefineaword,term,orconceptwhichisunfamiliartomostreadersoropentovariousinterpretations.Therearethreebasicwaystodefineawordorterm:a)togiveasynonym;b)touseasentence(oftenwithanattributiveclause),andc)towriteaparagraphorevenanessay.,61,Forinstance:,tomendmeanstorepairafellowisamanoraboy.Inkiscoloredwaterwhichweuseforwriting.,62,Butasynonymorasentencecannotgiveasatisfactorydefinitionofanabstracttermwhosemeaningiscomplex.,63,Wehavetowriteaparagraphoranessaywithexamplesornegativeexamples(whatthetermdoesnotmean),comparisons,withclassificationorcause-and-effectanalysis.,64,Forinstance:,A“liberatedwoman”issimplyawomanwhocontrolsherownlife,ratherthanallowingittobecontrolledbyotherpeople,traditions,orexpectations.A“liberatedwoman”canbefoundpursuinganylineofwork,includinghousework,ornoworkatall.Shemayormaynotbemarried;shemayormaynothavebornechildren.,65,Shemaybelongtoanyrace;shemayhaveattainedanyage.Shemaybepoororwealthy,educatedorilliterate.Sheneedhaveonlyonetraitincommonwithher“liberatedsisters”:shemakesherownchoices,whethertheybethecolorsonherwallsoradvanceddegreessheseeks.Sheactsofherownvolition,responsibletoherself,andnotoutoffearofwhathermother,lover,orneighbormightsay.(KlarnerW.Harp),66,10.DevelopmentbyaCombinationofMethods,Wehavediscussedquiteafewmethodsfordevelopingparagraphs.Sometimesonlyoneofthemisu