知识管理郭咸纲.ppt

ModuleKnowledgeManagement知识管理,郭咸纲WilliamX.GUO,OutlineofTopics（主题概要）,Importanceofknowledgemanagement知识管理的重要性OriginandDefinition起源和定义Typesofknowledgeandmodesofknowledgecreation知识的类型和知识创造的方式Knowledgecreatingcompanies知识创造型公司Implementingknowledgemanagement实施知识管理,Importanceofknowledgemanagement(KM)（知识管理的重要性）,Knowledgeisaformofcapital.知识是资本的一种形式Thesingledifferentiatorthatislikelytolastisinnovation,andtherawmaterialofinnovationisknowledge如果将资本比喻成创新，那么知识就是创新使用的原料Knowledge+Creativity=Innovation知识创造创新Case-By1987,onlyfiveyearsafterCanonintroduceditsinnovativemini-copier74%ofthecompanysrevenuescamefromitsbusinessmachinesdivision例：佳能公司推出袖珍复印机5年后的1987年，公司74的收入来自商业机器分公司FormalKMisoriginatedinconsultingfirms真正的知识管理开始于咨询公司,Definition（定义）,Knowledgemanagementistheprocessthathelpsorganizationsidentify,select,organize,andcaptureimportantinformationandexpertisewithintheorganizationanddisseminateittowhereveritisneededtoenhanceorganizationaleffectivenessandinnovativepotential.知识管理是协助组织识别、选择、组织和获取组织中的重要信息及专门技术的过程，并且将获取的信息和专门技术应用到组织中，以提高组织效率和创新潜力ResearchonKnowledgeCreationpioneeredbyProfessorsNonacaandTakeuchiofJapan日本的Nonaca和Takeuchi教授是研究知识创造的先驱,TypesofKnowledgeandModesofKnowledgeCreation知识类型和知识创造的方式,TypesofKnowledge（知识的类型）,Tacitknowledge-implicit,residesinexpertsheads,highlypersonal,difficulttocommunicate.内在知识隐藏、存在于专家的头脑中，非常私人的、很难交流。Explicitknowledge-formal,systematic,codified,publiclyavailable,andcanbeeasilycommunicatedandshared.E.g.,Productspecifications,scientificformula,computerprograms.外在知识正式、系统、成文、可用并且易于交流和共享。例如：产品规格、科学公式、计算机程序。,UnderstandingTacitKnowledge（理解内在知识）,PhilosopherMichaelPolanyi:Wecanknowmorethanwecantell.“哲学家MichaelPolanyi：”我们所知比所说要多。”Deeplyrootedinactionandinanindividualscommitmenttoaspecificcontext行为和个人活动归根究底有其原因Amastercraftsmanhasawealthofexpertiseathisfingertips“,butisoftenunabletoarticulatethescientificortechnicalprinciplesbehindwhatheknows一个熟练的工匠拥有很多专业技术“在他的指尖”，但他常常不能与蕴藏在其后的知识和技术原理相结合。后续,UnderstandingTacitKnowledge（理解内在知识）,续前-Theactivitiesofaworkgrouporteam-一个工作团体或团队的行为-Thekindofinformal,hard-to-pin-downskillscapturedinthetermknow-how.“-专门技术中非正式的、不受约束性技能的掌握Consistsofmentalmodels,beliefs,andperspectivessoingrainedthatwetakethemforgranted由智力模式、信念和观念组成，是根深蒂固的、我们必须赞同的,ModesofKnowledgeCreation,Socialization(Personalization)社会化（人性化）,Fromtacittotacit从内在到内在Apprenticeshipandmentoring学徒和老师Jobrotationbetweendepartments部门间的工作轮换Cross-functionprojectteams项目组的职责交叉,Internalization（内在化）,Fromexplicittotacit从外在到内在Learningbydoing(afterformaltrainingandexplicitinstructions)从作中学（在正式培训和指导后）Onthejobtraining在工作中锻炼,Combination（联合）,Fromexplicittoexplicit-processofcombining,systemizingandreconfiguratingdiscretepiecesofexistingexplicitknowledgeintoanewwhole从外在到外在联合、系统化和重新配置现有零散的外在知识成为一个新的整体SupportedbyInternet,WWW,databases,repositories,searchandretrievaltechnologies.由Internet、WWW、数据库、知识库、搜索和恢复技术支持,Externalization（外在化）(Codification)（成文化）(Articulation)（清晰度）,Fromtacittoexplicitprocessofcapturingandtransferringofexpertknowledge从内在到外在获取和转化专门知识的过程Askexpertstodeveloprulesandprocessesbasedontheirowntacitknowledge要求专家在自身内在知识的基础上获取规则和方法Knowledgeengineersorsystemsanalystsinterviewexpertsandextracttheirexpertise知识工程师和系统分析师会见专家并吸取他们的技术后续,Externalization（外在化）(Codification)（成文化）(Articulation)（清晰度）,续前Employeesdocumentproblemsolvingprocessesandsolutionsonthejob员工记录工作中解决问题的方法和方案Communityofpractice(ontheInternet),chatgroups,etc.实践社区（在Internet上）、交流团队等,FourmodesofknowledgecreationatMatsushitaElectricCompanyMatsushita电力公司的四种知识创造模式,IkukoTanakaapprenticedwithmasterbakertolearnhisskills（IkukoTanaka为熟练的面包师当学徒以学习技能）ShetranslatedthesesecretsintoexplicitknowledgethatshecancommunicatetoherteammembersandothersatMatsushita（她将这些秘密转化成外在知识，以与她的团队成员以及与Matsushita的其他团队交流）Theteamthenstandardizedthisknowledge,puttingittogetherintoamanualorworkbookandembodyingitinaproduct（团队将这些知识标准化，集中起来装订成册，并应用于产品中）Throughtheexperienceofcreatinganewproduct,Tanakaandherteammembersenrichedtheirowntacitknowledgebase（在开发新产品的过程中，Tanaka和她的团队成员不断丰富他们的内在知识）,Knowledge-creatingCompanies知识创造型公司,MetaphorAnalogyModel比喻类推模型,Toenlargethecreativespaceandtolinkcontradictorythingsandideasthroughmetaphor（通过比喻开拓创造空间和统一矛盾事务及观点）Resolvethesecontradictionsthroughanalogy（通过类推解决矛盾）Crystallizethecreatedconceptsandembodytheminamodel（明确创造性观念并在模型中具体化）,NewProductDevelopmentatHonda本田汽车的新产品开发,“Letsgamble”sloganinauguratedtheprocesswithateamofyoungengineersanddesigners,chargedwiththedevelopmentofanew-conceptcar,notacheaperversionofCivicandAccord.“Letsgamble”开创了新的理念，让年轻的工程师和设计师负责新概念车的开发，而不是那些便宜的大众汽车和普通汽车。TeamleaderHirooWatanabecoinedanotherslogan-TheoryofAutomobileEvolutiontoexpressanideal.团队领导HirooWatanabe提出另一个口号汽车发展推测以表达一种理想后续,NewProductDevelopmentatHonda本田汽车的新产品开发,续前Thisledtodiscussionanddebateandyetanotherslogan-Man-maximum,Machine-minimum.这些引发了讨论和辩论，还有一个口号最大人性化，最小机械化Finally,therevolutionary“TallBoy”HondaCityemerged.最后，革命性的“TallBoy”横空出世。,MetaphorAnalogyModel比喻类推模型,TheHondacaseshowshowJapanesecompaniesusefigurativelanguageandsymbolsinproductdevelopmentprocess（本田汽车的例子展示了日本公司在产品开发过程中如何使用比喻方式和符号）AMetaphormayhavemultiplemeaningsorappearlogicallycontradictory,buthelptomergedifferentareasofexperiencewithinasingle,imageorsymbol.比喻可能造成多意或出现逻辑矛盾，但能将不同领域的经验统一成一个简单、形象和符号的。PhilosopherMaxBlack:“twoideasinonephrase“哲学家MaxBlack：”一词有二意”后续,MetaphorAnalogyModel比喻类推模型,续前Peopleputtogetherwhattheyknowinnewwaysandbegintoexpresstacitknowledge-whattheyknowbutcannotyetsay人们采用新方法整理他们所知的知识并表示成内在知识他们理解但不会表达Effectiveinjumpstartingthecreativeprocessintheearlystagesofknowledgecreation在知识创造的初期高效的开始创造过程,Implications-SeniorExecutivesVision暗示高级管理人员的想象,Needstobeopen-endedandsusceptibletoavarietyofdifferentandevenconflictinginterpretations需要容许几种不同甚至是矛盾的解释Givesemployeesandworkgroupsthefreedomandautonomytosettheirowngoals给予员工和工作团队一定的自由和自治权，以达到他们的自身目标Ifavisionistoounambiguous,itbecomesanorderanddonotfosterthehighdegreeofpersonalcommitmentonwhicheffectiveknowledgecreationdepends如果一个想象太明确，它将成为一个规则，阻止人的创造能力在更深层次上的激发，而这是有效知识创造所依靠的,ConceptualUmbrella,Sharp-“OptoelectronicstodescribethemergingofmicroelectronicswithopticaltechnologiesSeniormanagerstookupthewordandmagnifieditsimpactfarbeyondtheR&DandengineeringdepartmentsinthecompanySharp“光电子学”是描述微电子学和光学技术的融合，高级管理人员使用该词并将其推广到R&D以及工程部外的其他部门NEC-themetaphorC&C(forcomputersandcommunications),CategorizedthecompanysknowledgebaseintermsofafewkeytechnologiesNEC-“C&C”（计算机和通信），采用几个关键技术术语对公司知识加以分类Kao-“Surfaceactivescience“GuideditsdiversificationintoproductsrangingfromsoapdetergentstocosmeticstofloppydisksallnaturalderivativesofKaoscoreknowledgebaseKao-“Surfaceactivescience“指导它的产品多样化，从肥皂、清洁剂到化妆品，到软盘一切自然从Kao的核心知识演化而来,MetaphorAnalogyModel比喻类推模型,Metaphorstriggertheknowledge-creationprocessthroughintuitionandlinkingconflictingimages比喻通过直觉和统一矛盾现象触发知识创造过程Thenextstepisanalogy,amorestructuredprocessofreconcilingcontradictions.下一步是类推，一个更加结构化的缓和矛盾的过程Anintermediatestepbetweenpureimaginationandlogicalthinking纯想象和逻辑思考的中间一步Whyisabeercanausefulanalogyforapersonalcopier?为什么啤酒罐是一个个人复印机的有用类推？,BeercanandCanonpersonalcopier啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机,Canonwasdevelopingarevolutionarymini-copierthatisreliable,easyandcheaptomake.佳能开发了一种微型复印机可靠、简单且造价低廉Plantomakethephotosensitivecopierdrum(thesourceof90%ofallmaintenanceproblems)disposable计划制造可随意使用的感光复印机鼓Theteamwasdiscussingdesignproblemsoversomedrinks开发团队基于一些饮料讨论设计问题后续,BeercanandCanonpersonalcopier啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机,续前Tanaka(theteamleader)heldoneofthebeercansandwonderedaloud,Howmuchdoesitcosttomanufacturethiscan?“Tanaka（团队领导）拿着一个啤酒罐，惊异的叫道：“制造这个易拉罐的成本是多少？”Thequestionledtheteamtospeculatewhetherthesameprocessformakinganaluminumbeercouldbeappliedtothemanufactureofanaluminumcopierdrum这个问题引发了团队的思索，能否象制造铝啤酒罐一样制造铝复印机鼓,MetaphorAnalogyModel比喻类推模型,Thelaststepintheknowledge-creationprocess知识创造的最后一步Moreimmediatelyconceivablethanametaphororananalogy比比喻和类推更直接想到Contradictionsgetresolvedandconceptsbecometransferablethroughconsistentandsystematiclogic通过协调和系统逻辑，矛盾可以解决、概念可以转化Makestheknowledgeavailabletotherestofthecompany使得知识对于公司的其他地方是可利用的,Developinglow-costdisposablecopierdrumresultedinnewtechnologiesforotherofficeproductssuchasmicrofilmreadersandlaserprinters开发低成本的可随意使用的复印机鼓，为其他办公产品引入了一种新技术，如缩影胶片阅读器和激光打印机By1987onlyfiveyearsafterthemini-copierwasintroduced74%ofCanonsrevenuescamefromitsbusinessmachinesdivision1987年，微型复印机开发后的5年后，佳能74的收入来自商业机器分公司Prooftheknowledgeisaformofcapital.证明了知识是资本的一种形式,StrategicImpactofKnowledgeCreationatCanon佳能知识创造的战略影响,CreatingknowledgeinOrganizationsviaRedundancy通过冗余在组织中创造知识,Thefundamentalprincipleoforganizationaldesigninknowledge-creatingcompaniesisredundancyinknowledge-creatingresponsibilities.知识创造型公司的组织设计的基本原则是知识创造职责的冗余AtCanon,ateamisdividedintocompetinggroupstodevelopavarietyofapproachesandperspectives-principleofinternalcompetition.在佳能，一个团队分成两个互相竞争组，按不同的方法和观点发展内部竞争法则Maybewastefulintheshortrun,butnewideasproliferateandtheorganizationsknowledge-creatingabilityisaccelerated.这可能在短期内造成浪费，但能带来新的想法并增强组织的知识创造能力,StrategicJobRotation战略岗位轮换,Asecondwaytobuildredundancytohelpemployeesunderstandthebusinessfrommultipleperspectives建立冗余机制的第二种方法可帮助员工从不同的角度理解公司Makesorganizationalknowledgemorefluidandeasiertoputintopractice使组织的知识更具有“流动性”，更容易付于实施AtKaoCorporation,aJapaneseconsumer-productsmanufacturer,employeesareexpectedtoholdatleastthreedifferentjobsinanygiventen-yearperiodKao公司，一家日本的消费品制造企业，它的员工总被期望在任意10年中至少从事三份不同的工作ResearchersoftenretirefromtheR&Ddepartmentbytheageof40inordertotransfertootherdepartmentssuchasmarketing,sales,orproduction研究人员一般在40岁时从R&D退休，.投向其他部门，如市场、销售和产品,FreeAccessofInformation自由访问信息,Athirdwaytobuildredundancy建立冗余的第三种方法Wheninformationdifferentialsexist,membersofanorganizationcannolongerinteractonequalterms,whichhindersthesearchfordifferentinterpretationsofnewknowledge当不同信息存在时，组织成员将不再受相当条件的制约，这些条件是阻止搜索新知识的不同解释的Kaodoesnotlimitaccesstoinformationamongemployees.Allcompanyinformation(withtheexceptionofpersonneldata)isstoredinasingleintegrateddatabase,opentoanyemployeeregardlessofpositionKao在公司员工中不对信息访问加以限制。公司的所有信息（个人数据除外）都存放在一个独立的完整数据库中，并对公司的所有员工开放，而不论其职位,Knowledge-creatingRoles（知识创造的角色）,Creatingnewknowledgeistheproductofadynamicinteractionamongthreeroles创造新知识是三种角色动态交互的结果Frontlineemployeesareoftencaughtupintheirownnarrowperspectiveandlosesightofthebroadercontext前线员工常为他们自己的狭隘看法所迷惑，而失去对全局的把握Seniormanagersarticulatemetaphors,symbols,andconceptualumbrellathatorienttheknowledge-creatingactivitiesofemployees.Theyjudgeandtestthevalueofnewknowledgecreatedandaskbroadquestions:高级管理人员结合比喻、象征和概念伞，以确定员工知识创造的方向。他们判断并检验新知识创造的价值并提出更广泛的问题：Whatarewetryingtolearn?（我们将要学什么？）Whatdoweneedtoknow?（我们需要知道什么?）,MiddleManagersandTeams(中层管理人员和团队),Middlemanagersprovideaconceptualframeworkthathelpsfrontlineemployeestomakesenseofthechaoticmarketsignals中层管理人员提供一个概念框架，以帮助前线员工搞清混乱市场信息的意思。Teamsplayacentralroleinknowledgecreationasitsmemberscreatediversepointsofviewsandthenintegrateintoanewcollectiveperspective.团队在知识创造过程中起了核心的作用，当成员提出不同观点时，它便综合所有成一个新的综合观点。后续,MiddleManagersandTeams(中层管理人员和团队),续前Teamleadersaretypicallymiddlemanagerswhosynthesizethetacitknowledgeofbothfrontlineemployeesandseniorexecutives,makeitexplicit,andincorporateitintonewtechnologiesandproducts团队领导是典型的中层管理人员，他们综合前线员工和高级管理人员的内在知识，使其外在化，并将其融合入新产品和技术中。Theyarethetrueknowledgeengineersoftheknowledge-creatingcompany他们是知识创造型公司真正的“知识工程师”。,Implementingknowledgemanagement(KM)执行知识管理,Implementingknowledgemanagement(KM)执行知识管理,Knowledgemanagementconcepts（知识管理的概念）PreparationforKMinitiatives（知识管理的初始准备）Knowledgemanagementstrategy（知识管理战略）ElementsofKMpractice（知识管理实践的基础）KMtechnologies（知识管理技术）Casestudies（示例学习）,KnowledgeManagementConcepts（知识管理的概念）Organizationallearning-Creationofnewstandardoperatingproceduresandbusinessprocessesthatreflectsorganizationsexperiences组织学习建立反映组织经历的新的标准化运作程序和商业过程Knowledgemanagement-Thesetofprocessesdevelopedinanorganizationtocreates,gathers,stores,maintains,anddisseminatesknowledge知识管理在组织中发展的商业程序是为了建立、聚集、存储、维护和传播知识后续,KnowledgeManagementConcepts（知识管理的概念）续前BestPractices-Successfulsolutionsorproblem-solvingmethodsdevelopedbyspecificorganizationorindustry最好的实践由专门的组织或行业提出的成功解答或解决问题的方法OrganizationalMemory-Storedlearningfromorganizationshistorythatcanbeusedfordecisionmakingandotherpurposes组织存储存储从组织历史中获取的知识，对决策制定和其他活动都是有用的,PreparationStepsforKMInitiatives知识管理初始准备的步骤,1)AppointachiefknowledgeofficerandcreateaKMstrategythatislinkedtocorporatestrategicobjectives.任命一个首席知识官员并建立一个知识管理战略是与公司战略目标相关的2)DeployKMtechnologicalinfrastructuretoenabletheprocessofcreating,sharinganddisseminatingknowledge.配置知识管理技术的下部组织能够建立、共享和传播知识3)StrengthentopmanagementcommitmentbyshowingthemsuccessfulKMpracticeinothercompanies.通过展现其他公司成功的知识管理经验加强高层管理4)Developacultureandrewardsystemoftrustandlearningtofostercollaborationandinnovation.Makeemployeesfeelcomfortablesharingknowledge建立信任的文化氛围及回报系统，培养协作和创新。使员工感觉到知识共享的好处。,KnowledgeManagementStrategy知识管理战略,Drivenbycompanyscompetitivestrategy由公司竞争战略驱动Howitcreatesvalueforcustomers（怎样为顾客创造价值）Howthatvaluesupportsaneconomicmodel（价值如何支持经济模型）Howthecompanyspeopledeliveronthevalueandtheeconomics（公司的人们如何实现价值）Somecompaniesautomateknowledgemanagement(Codification)一些公司实行自动知识管理Othersrelyontheirpeopletoshareknowledgethroughmoretraditionalmeans(Personalization)另一些公司通过传统方式，依靠他们的员工共享知识,DifferentKnowledgeManagementStrategies不同的知识管理战略,Codificationcanbethemainemphasisformorestructuredtasks.Thisrequirescomprehensiveelectronicrepositoryof“knowledgeobjects”tofacilitatereuseofexplicitknowledge.ExamplesAndersonConsultingandErnst&YoungfortechnologyandERPimplementation.成文化主要强调将任务结构化。这要求全面的“知识对象”电子知识库，以方便的重复使用外在知识。如AndersonConsulting、Ernst&Youngfortechnology和执行ERPPersonalizationcanbethemainemphasisforlessstructuredtasks.Thisrequiresintensiveperson-to-personcontacts,emails,videoconferences,etc.tofacilitateexchangeoftacitknowledge.Examples-McKinsey,BCG,andBainforcustomizedcorporatestrategyconsulting.人性化主要强调任务的非结构性。这要求加强人与人的交流、电子邮件和视频会议等，以方便内在知识的交换。如McKinsey、BCG和Bainforcustomizedcorporatestrategyconsulting.,Codification（成文化）,Knowledgeisextractedfromthepersonwhodevelopedit,madeindependentofthatperson,andreusedforvariouspurposes知识从提出者处获取，并独立于提出者，重复使用于不同的目的,CodificationErnst&Young（成文化Ernst&Young）,Ernst&YoungexecutiveshaveinvestedalottomakesurethatthecodificationprocessworksefficientlyErnst&Young的决策者进行了大量投资以保证成文化运作有效进行The250peopleattheCenterforBusinessKnowledgemanagetheelectronicrepositoryandhelpconsultantsfindanduseinformation商业知识中心有250名员工，他们管理电子知识库以帮助顾问寻找和使用信息Specialistswritereportsandanalysesthatmanyteamscanuse专家撰写报告并分析可使用的后续,CodificationErnst&Young（成文化Ernst&Young）,续前EachofErnst&Youngsmorethan40practiceareashasastaffmemberwhohelpscodifyandstoredocumentsErnst&Young在超过40个领域有成员，他们帮助成文、存档Resultingareadatabasesarelinkedthroughanetwork.结果域的数据库通过网络连接,CodificationErnst&Young成文化Ernst&Young,RandallLove,anErnst&Youngpartner,waspreparinganimportantbidforalargeindustrialmanufacturerErnst&Young的合作伙伴RandallLove准备对一个大的工业制造商的投标计划Hesearchedtheelectronicknowledgemanagementrepositoryforrelevantknowledge它查找电子知识管理库以寻找相关知识Hefoundandusedseveralpreviouslydevelopedsolutionstodevelopapresentationontheindustry找到并使用以前的几个解决方案以完成行业介绍Healsofoundandusedpropositionsthathelpedhimestimatehowmuchmoneytheclientwouldsavebyimplementingthesystem.同时，还找到并使用相关资料，以帮助预测客户使用该系统可节省多少钱后续,CodificationErnst&Young成文化Ernst&Young,续前Lovewontheprojectandclosedthesaleintwomonthsinsteadofthetypicalfourtosix在2个月内赢得项目并完成交易，而一般需要4到6个月Healsofoundprogrammingdocuments,technicalspecifications,trainingmaterials,andchangemanagementdocumentationintherepositorywhichsavedresearchanddevelopmenttime还在知识库中找到了设计文档、技术规格、培训材料和变动管理文件，这便节省了研发时间Codificationsavedtheteamandtheclientonefullyearofwork成文化为团队和客户节省了1年时间,Codification:CreatingValueforCustomers成文化：为客户创造价值,Consultantsreuseexistingbrickswhileapplyingtheirskillstoconstructsomethingnew顾问在创建新事物时可使用已存在的模块Customerbenefitsbecausetheconsultantscanbuildareliable,high-qualityinformationsystemfasterandatabetterpricethanothersbyusingworkplans,softwarecode,andsolutionsthathavebeenfine-tunedandprovensuccessful客户也从中获益，这是由于顾问能建立可靠的、高质的信息系统，且该系统比其他已很好运行或证明成功的工作计划、软件程序和其他解决方案更快、更廉价,Codification:TurningaProfit成文化：带来盈利,Reuseofknowledgesaveswork,reducescommunicationscosts,andallowsacompanytotakeonmoreprojects重复使用知识可简化工作、减少通信费用且能使公司承担更多的项目FirmssuchasAndersenConsultingandErnst&Younghavebeenabletogrowatratesof20%ormoreinrecentyears象AndersenConsulting和Ernst&Young等公司近些年都以20或更高的速度增长,Codification-ManagingPeople成文化管理员工,Ernst&YoungandAndersenConsultinghireundergraduatesfromtopuniversitiesandtrainthemtodevelopandimplementchangeprogramsandinformationsystemsErnst&Young和AndersenConsulting在在高校雇佣大学生，培训他们开发和执行方案改造和信息系统Usingtheknowledgemanagementrepository,theconsultantsworkthroughscenariosdesignedtoimprovebusinessprocesses顾问使用知识管理库完成方案设计以提高商业运作水平Theyareimplementers,notinventors他们是执行者，不是发明者,CodificationNotjustforConsultants成文化不仅仅是给顾问的,HealthCareAccessHealth（卫生保健AccessHealth）Whensomeonecallsthecenter,aregisterednurseusesthecompanysclinicaldecisionarchitecturetoassessthecallerssymptoms,ruleoutpossibleconditions,andrecommendahomeremedy,doctorsvisit,oremergencyroomtrip当有人向中心呼救，护士便根据“临床诊断体系”诊断呼救者症状，排除可能的病症，并推荐家庭治疗、医师诊断或急救Theknowledgerepositorycontainsalgorithmsofthesymptomsofmorethan500illnesses知识库包含超过500种病的症状情况Thefirst300algorithmsthatAccessHealthdevelopedhaveeachbeenusedanaverageof8,000timesperyear前300种每年被使用超过8000次,CodificationatDellDell的文化,Directsaleofmade-to-orderinexpensivePCs-StrategyInvestedinaknowledgemanagementsystemwithanelectronicrepositorythatspecifyendlessconfigurations.Customerschooseconfigurationsfromamenu,suppliersprovidecomponentsbasedontheirorders,andmanufacturingretrievesordersfromthesystemandschedulesassemblyDelldoesnotdeliverhighlycustomizedorders,anditraisesitspricesconsiderablyfororderswithspecialcomponents.InI997,Dellshipped11millionPCs.Thosesystemswereputtogetherfrom40,000possibleconfigurations(competitorstypicallyofferonlyabout100configurations),Eachconfigurationwasusedonaverage275timesThatlevelofreuseallowsDelltoloweritscostsandchargelessthanthecompetitionThisknowledgereusemodelhelpedthecompanytogrowrevenues83%annuallyoverthelastfouryears,Personalization人性化,Focusondialoguebetweenindividuals,notknowledgeobjectsinadatabase注重人之间的对话，而不是数据库中的知识对象Knowledgei