Austin's-Speech-Act-TheoryPPT课件

Chapter12ActingandConversing,PresentedbyYuLiang,Introduction,Inspeakingtooneanother,wemakeuseofsentences,ortobemoreprecise,utterances(话段).Wecanattempttoclassifytheseutterancesinanyoneofavarietyofways.Wecantrytoclassifythembylength,e.g.,bycountingthenumberofwordsineachutterance.Wecantrytoclassifythembygrammaticalstructurealonganumberofdimensions,e.g.,theirclausaltypeandcomplexity:active-passive;statement-question-request-exclamatory;variouscombinationsofthese;andsoon.Wemayeventrytoworkoutasemanticorlogicalstructureforeachutterance.Butitisalsopossibletoattemptaclassificationintermsofwhatsentencesdo,i.e.,totakeafunctionalapproach,butonethatgoessomewhatbeyondconsiderationofsuchfunctionsasstating,questioning,requesting,andexclaiming.Inrecentyearsanumberofphilosophershavehadinterestingthingstosayaboutwhatutterancesdoaswellasmean,observingthatpartofthetotalmeaningisthisverydoing.,Introduction,Assoonaswelookcloselyatconversationingeneral,weseethatitinvolvesmuchmorethanusinglanguagetostatepropositionsorconveyfacts.Throughconversationweestablishrelationshipswithothers,achieveameasureofcooperation(orfailtodoso),keepchannelsopenforfurtherrelationships,andsoon.Theutterancesweuseinconversationenableustodothesekindsofthingsbecauseconversationitselfhascertainpropertieswhicharewellworthexamining.,OurConcerninthischapter:,1Wewillbeconcernedbothwithwhatutterancesdoandhowtheycanbeused.2Specificallywithhowweusetheminconversation.,Introduction,PartI-SpeechActs:AustinandSearlePartII-CooperationandFace:GriceandGoffmanPartIII-SomeFeaturesofConversation,PartISpeechActs,Proposition(命题):Onethingthatmanyutterancesdoismakepropositions:theydothismainlyintheformofeitherstatementsorquestionsbutothergrammaticalformsarealsopossible.E.g.:Ihadabusydaytoday,Haveyoucalledyourmother?,andYourdinnersready!Suchutterancesareconnectedinsomewaywitheventsorhappeningsinapossibleworld,i.e.,onethatcanbeexperiencedorimagined,aworldinwhichsuchpropositionscanbesaidtobeeithertrueorfalse.Theyhavebeencalledconstativeutterances(陈述话段).,Adifferentkindofproposition-theethicalproposition(伦理命题):E.g.:Bigboysdontcry,Godislove,Thoushaltnotkill,Youmusttellthetruth.Justlikeanordinaryproposition,anethicalpropositionmaybetrueorfalse.Buttruthandfalsityarenottherealpurposeofethicalpropositions;theirrealpurposeistoserveasguidestobehaviorinsomeworldorother.Bigboysdontcryisobviouslyvalue-ladeninawayinwhichYoudinnerisready!definitelyisnot.,Phaticutterances(情感话段):Anotherkindofutteranceisthephatictype,e.g.,Niceday!,Howdoyoudo?,andYourelookingsmarttoday!Weemploysuchutterancesnotfortheirpropositionalcontentbutratherfortheiraffectivevalueasindicatorsthatonepersoniswillingtotalktoanotherandthatachannelofcommunicationiseitherbeingopenedorbeingkeptopen.Phaticutterancesdonotreallycommunicateanything;rather,theiruseallowscommunicationtooccurshouldtherebeanythingofconsequencetosay.,SpeechActTheory言语行为理论Thefirstmajortheoryinthestudyoflanguageinuse.ByJohnAustinHowtoDoThingswithWords(1962)怎样用词做事Thephilosopher,J.L.Austin(1962),distinguishedstillanotherkindofutterance,theperformativeutterance(施为话段).Inusingaperformativeutterance,apersonisnotjustsayingsomethingbutisactuallydoingsomethingifcertainreal-worldconditionsaremet.,Britishphilosopher,J.L.Austin,Performative:sayingitselfaccomplishingacertainaction,affecting,orchangingtheworldinsomeway;suchutterancesperformacts.他们的特点在于不止是言有所述，而且是言有所为。,InamethisshipQueenElizabeth.(Incertaincircumstancesistonameaship.)Ido.(Inothercircumstancesistofindoneselfahusbandorawife.),Performativeverbs:promise,order,ask,propose,suggest,tell,warn,report,name,etc.,Performativevs.Constative,Ipromisetoloveyou!,Ifireyou!,Performativevs.Constative,Constatives:utteranceswhichroughlyservestostateafact,reportthatsomethingisthecase,ordescribewhatsomethingis,e.g.:“Ipoursomeliquidintothetube.”Anutterancewhichassertssomethingthatseithertrueorfalse.E.g.:IgototheparkeverySunday.IteachEnglish.Itsraining.Thecatisintheroom.,Performative,vs.,Constative,Theperformativeutteranceisusedtoperformanaction,soithasnotruthvalue.,Theconstativeutteranceisverifiableanditiseithertrueorfalse.,Felicityconditions合适条件Thereareconditionsforperformativestomeettobeappropriateorfelicitous.Austinsuggestedthefollowingconditions:A.aconventionalproceduremustexistfordoingwhateveristobedone,andthatproceduremustspecifywhomustsayanddowhatandinwhatcircumstances.B.Theproceduremustbeexecutedcorrectlyandcompletelybyallparticipants.C.Thenecessarythoughts,feelings,andintentionsmustbepresentinallparties.,Ingeneral,thespokenpartofthetotalact,theactualspeechact,willtakethegrammaticalformofhavingafirst-personsubjectandaverbinthepresenttense;itmayormaynotalsoincludethewordhereby.ExamplesareI(hereby)name,Wedecree,andIswear.Thiskindofutteranceisexplicitlyperformativewhenitisemployedinaconventionalframework,suchasnamingships,makingroyalproclamations,andtakinganoathincourt.Austinalsoacknowledgesthattherearelessexplicitperformatives.DeclarationslikeIpromise,Iapologize,orIwarnyouhavemanyofthesamecharacteristicsasthepreviouslymentionedutterancesbutlackanyassociatedconventionalprocedure;foranyonecanpromise,apologize,andwarn,andthereisnowayofspecifyingthecircumstancesquitesonarrowlyasinnamingships,proclaiming,orswearinganoath.Itisalsoonoccasionpossibletouseothergrammaticalformsthancombinationoffirstpersonandpresenttense.Thinice,(冰层太薄)Savagedog,(当心野狗)Slipperywhenwet.(小心湿滑)areallveryobviouslywarnings,sotothatextenttheyareperformatives.,Fivecategoriesofperformatives(Austin):(1)verdictives(裁决型),typifiedbythegivingofaverdict,estimate,grade,orappraisal(Wefindtheaccusedguilty);(2)exercitives(行使型),theexercisingofpowers,rightsorinfluencesasinappointing,ordering,warning,oradvising(Ipronounceyouhusbandandwife);(3)commissives(承诺型),typifiedbypromisingorundertaking,andcommittingonetodosomethingby,forexample,announcinganintentionorespousingacause(Iherebybequeath);(4)behabitives(表态型),havingtodowithsuchmattersasapologizing,congratulating,blessing,cursing,orchallenging(Iapologize);(5)expositives(阐述型),atermusedtorefertohowonemakesutterancesfitintoanargumentorexposition(Iargue,Ireply,orIassume).,Locution,Illocution,andPerlocution,AccordingtoSearle(1969),weperformdifferentkindsofactswhenwespeak.Theutterancesweusearelocutions(发话行动).Mostlocutionsexpresssomeintentthataspeakerhas.Theythereforehaveanillocutionaryforce(行事语力).Aspeakercanalsousedifferentlocutionstoachievethesameillocutionaryforceoruseonelocutionformanydifferentpurposes.Schiffrin(1994,ch.3)hasaverygoodexampleofthelatter.Sheshowsoneform,Ywantapieceofcandy?canperformmanyfunctionsasaspeechact,includingquestion,request,andoffer.Incontrast,wecanseehowdifferentformscanperformasinglefunctionsinceitisquitepossibletoasksomeonetoclosethedoorwithdifferentwords:Itscoldinhere,Thedoorsopen,andCouldsomeoneseetothedoor?Illocutionsalsooftencauselistenerstodothings.Tothatextenttheyareperlocutions(取效).IfyousayIbetyouadollarhellwinandIsayOn,yourillocutionaryactofofferingabethasledtomyperlocutionaryuptakeofacceptingit.Theperlocutionaryforceofyourwordsistogetmetobet,andyouhavesucceeded.,Whenasentenceisuttered,thespeakerisperformingthreekindsofspeechactssimultaneously:locutionaryact,illocutionaryact,andperlocutionaryact.LocutionaryAct(说话行为/叙事行为)Whenwespeak,wemovevocalorgansandproducesomesounds,organizedinacertainwayandwithacertainmeaning.Thisactiscalledalocutionaryact.Itistheutteranceofasentencewithdeterminatesenseandreference.为了叙述某事而说出话语,称“言之发”e.g.Somebodysays“Morning!”.Wecanask:“Whatdidhedo?”Andtheanswercouldbethatheproducedasound,wordorsentence“Morning!”,2.llocutionaryAct(行事/施事行为)Theactofexpressingthespeakersintention,tosaysomethingistodosomething.在说出话语时不仅叙述某件事,而且做出了某件事,称“示言外之力”。InsayingX,IwasdoingY.“Iwillcometomorrow”Iwasmakingapromise.e.g.“Morning!”.Ithastheforceofagreeting.Illocutionaryforce(行事/施事语力)isequivalenttospeakersmeaning,contextualmeaning,orextrameaning(言外之意).,3.PerlocutionaryAct(取效行为)Theactpreformedbyorasaresultofsayingsomething,achievingtheeffectsonthehearer.说出话语后,在听话人身上产生了某种效果。“收言后之果”。BysayingXanddoingY,IachievedtheeffectsofZ.“Iwillcometomorrow”makingapromise,Ireassuremyfriends.e.g.“Morning!”anutteranceasagreetinghavingeffectsonthehearerthatthespeakerwantstokeepfriendlyrelationswiththehearer.,Fiverulesthatgovernpromise-making:Searlehasconcentratedhisworkonspeechactsonhowahearerperceivesaparticularutterancetohavetheforceithas,whathecallstheuptake(领会)ofanutterance.Inparticular,whatmakesapromiseapromise?ForSearletherearefiverulesthatgovernpromise-making.Thepropositionalcontentrule(命题内容原则),isthatthewordsmustpredicateafutureactionofthespeaker.(2)/(3)Thepreparatoryrules(预备性原则),requirethatboththepersonpromisingandthepersontowhomthepromiseismademustwanttheactdoneandthatitwouldnototherwisebedone.Moreover,thepersonpromisingbelievesheorshecandowhatispromised.Thesincerityrule(真诚原则),requiresthepromisertointendtoperformtheact,thatis,tobeplacedundersomekindofobligation.Theessentialrule(基本原则),saysthattheutteringofthewordscountsasundertakinganobligationtoperformtheaction.,Tworulesthatcontroltheperformanceofspeechacts:1.Regulativerules(制约性规则)arethingslikelawsandregulationspassedbygovernmentsandlegislativebodies:theyregulatewhatisrightandwrongandsometimesprescribesanctionsifandwhentherulesarebroken,e.g.,TrespassingisforbiddenorNoparking.IfX,doYWearesupposedtosay“Hi”ifwemeetourfriend.Whenthetrafficisred,youshouldnotcrosstheroad.,2.Constitutiverules(构成性规则)areliketherulesofbaseball,chess,orsoccer:theyactuallydefineaparticularactivityintheformofdoingXcountsYsothatif,incertainprescribedcircumstances,youstrikeaballinaparticularwayorsucceedinmovingitintoacertainplace,thatcountsasagoal.Therulesconstitutethegame:withoutthemthegamedoesnotexist.Inthesameway,speechactsarewhattheyarebecausesayingsomethingcountsassomethingifcertainconditionsprevail.Languagecandothingscanperformactsbecausepeopleshareconstitutiverulesthatcreatetheactsandthatallowthemtolabelutterancesasparticularkindsofacts.-Schiffrin(1994),Searlesclassificationofillocutionaryacts:Assertives(断言类expotives):statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue.E.g.assert,claim,affirm,state,deny,inform,notify,remind,etc.Directives(指令类verdictives):tryingtogetthehearertodosomething.E.g.request,ask,urge,tell,demand,command,order,advise,etc.Commissives(承诺类commissives):committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.Emit,promise,threaten,pledge,consent,refuse,offer,guarantee,etc.Expressives(表达类behabitives):expressingfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.E.g.apologize,boast,thank,deplore,welcome,congratulate,etc.Declarations(宣告类exercitives):bringaboutimmediatechangesbysayingsomething.E.g.declare,resign,appoint,nominate,bless,name,etc.,Conclusion,IncontrasttoAustin,whofocusedhisattentiononhowspeakersrealizetheirintentionsinspeaking,Searlefocusesonhowlistenersrespondtoutterances,thatis,howonepersontriestofigureouthowanotherisusingaparticularutterance.Iswhatisheardapromise,awarning,anassertion,arequest,orsomethingelse?Whatistheillocutionaryforceofaparticularutterance?WhatweseeinbothAustinandSearleisarecognitionthatpeopleuselanguagetoachieveavarietyofobjectives.Ifwewanttounderstandwhattheyhopetoaccomplish,wemustbepreparedtotakeintoaccountfactorsthatrangefarbeyondtheactuallinguisticformofanyparticularutterance.,AccordingtophilosopherssuchasGrice,weareabletoconversewithoneanotherbecausewerecognizecommongoalsinconversationandspecificwaysofachievingthesegoals.Inanyconversation,onlycertainkindsofmoves(行动)arepossibleatanyparticulartimebecauseoftheconstraintsthatoperatetogovernexchanges.Theseconstraintslimitspeakersastowhattheycansayandlistenersastowhattheycaninfer.Gricemaintainsthattheoverridingprincipleinconversationisonehecallsthecooperativeprinciple(合作原则):Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasisrequired,atthestageatwhichitoccurs,bytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.Youmustthereforeactinconversationinaccordwithageneralprinciplethatyouaremutuallyengagedwithyourlistenerorlistenersinanactivitythatisofbenefittoall,thatbenefitbeingmutualunderstanding.,PartIICooperationandFace,Gricelistsfourmaximsthatfollowfromthecooperativeprinciple:Themaximofquantity(数量准则/适量准则)requiresyoutomakeyourcontributionasinformativeasisrequired.Themaximofquality(质量准则/真实准则)requiresyounottosaywhatyoubelievetobefalseorthatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofrelation(关联准则)isthesimpleinjunction:berelevant.Themaximofmanner(方式准则/明晰准则)requiresyoutoavoidobscurityofexpressionandambiguity,andtobebriefandorderly.Thisprincipleandthesemaximscharacterizeidealexchanges.Suchexchangeswouldalsoobservecertainotherprinciplestoo,suchasBepolite.Gricealsopointsoutthatthesemaximsdonotapplytoconversationalone.Themaximsareinvolvedinallkindsofrationalcooperativebehavior:weassumetheworldworksaccordingtoasetofmaximsorruleswhichwehaveinternalized,andwegenerallydoourbesttomakeitworkinthatway.(P.287),Ofcourse,everydayspeechoftenoccursinlessthanidealcircumstances.Gricepointsoutthespeakerdonotalwaysfollowthemaximshehasdescribed,andasaresult,theymayimplicatesomethingratherdifferentfromwhattheyactuallysay.Theymayviolate,exploit,oroptoutofoneofthemaxims,ortwoofthemaximsmayclashinaparticularinstance.E.g.:A.Iamoutofpetrol.B.Thereisagarageroundthecorner.Inthissethesaysthatnomaximisviolated,forBsresponseisanadequateresponsetoAsremark.,Hegivesfurtherexamples,however,inwhichthereisadeliberateexploitationofamaxim.E.g.:DearSir,Mr.XscommandofEnglishisexcellent,andhisattendanceattutorialshasbeenregular.Yours(Mr.Xisapplyingforalectureshipinphilosophy)Atestimonialletterpraisingacandidatesminorqualitiesandentirelyignoringthosethatmightberelevanttothepositionforwhichthecandidateisbeingconsideredfloutsthemaximofquantity,justasdoesprotestingyourinnocencetoostrongly.,Otherexamplesareironic,metaphoric,orhyperbolicinnature:Youreafinefriendsaidtosomeonewhohasjustletyoudown;Youarethecreaminmycoffee;andEverynicegirllovesasailor.Whatwedoinunderstandinganutteranceistoaskourselvesjustwhatisappropriateintermsofthesemaximsinaparticularsetofcircumstances.Weassesstheliteralcontentoftheutteranceandtrytoachievesomekindoffitbetweenitandthemaxims.Consequently,theanswertothequestion,WhyisXtellingmeinthisway?ispartofreachingadecisionaboutwhatexactlyXistellingme.E.g.:InsteadofSmithsayingtoyouthatMissXsang“HomeSweetHome”,hesaysMissXproducedaseriesofsoundsthatcorrespondedcloselywiththescoreof“HomeSweetHome”,youwillobservethatSmithsfailuretobebriefhelpsdamnMissXsperformance.,Thetheoryofimplicature(暗示)explainshow,whenAsayssomethingtoB,BwillunderstandAsremarksinacertainwaybecauseBwillrecognizethatAsaidmorethanwasrequired,orgaveaseeminglyirrelevantreply,ordeliberatelyobfuscatedtheissue.BwillinterpretwhatAsaysasacooperativeactofaparticularkindintheongoingexchangebetweenAandB,butthatcooperationmaybeshownsomewhatindirectly.BwillhavetofigureoutthewayinwhichAsutteranceistobefittedintotheirongoingexchange,andBsoperatingassumptionwillbethattheutteranceiscoherent,thatsensecanbemadeofit,andthatprinciplesnecessarytodosoareavailable.Thetaskisnotanunprincipledone:Gricesmaximsprovidethenecessaryinterpretiveframeworkwithinwhichtoestablishtherelevanceofutterancestoeachother.,FaceConversationiscooperativealsointhesensethatspeakersandlistenerstendtoaccepteachotherforwhattheyclaimtobe:thatis,theyacceptthefacethattheotheroffers.Thatfacemayvaryaccordingtocircumstances,foratonetimethefaceyouoffermemaybethatofaclosefriend,onanotheroccasionateacher,andonathirdoccasionayoungwoman,butitisafacewhichIwillgenerallyaccept.Iwilljudgeyourwordsagainstthefaceyouarepresenting,anditisverylikelythatwewillbothagreethatyouareataparticularmomentpresentingacertainfacetomeandIampresentingacertainfacetoyou.WewillinvolvedinwhatGoffman(1955)hascalledface-work(面子功夫),theworkofpresentingfacestoeachother,protectingourownface,andprotectingtheothersface.Wewillbeplayingoutalittledramatogetherandcooperatingtoseethatnothingmarstheperformance.Thatisnorm.,FaceOfcourse,onepartymayviolatethatnorm.Icanrefusetoacceptyouforwhatyouclaimtobe,denyyourrighttothefaceyouareattemptingtopresent,andevenchallengeyouaboutit.Imayalsoregardyourfaceasinappropriateorinsincere,butsaynothing,reservingmyjudgmentsaboutyourdemeanorandwordstomyself.Thesecondcourseofactionisthemoreusual;challengingsomeoneaboutthefaceheorsheispresentingisgenerallyavoided,andthosewhomakearegularpracticeofitquicklyfindthemselvesunwelcomealmosteverywhereeventoeachother.Conversationthereforeinvolvesaconsiderableamountofrole-playing:wechoosearoleforourselvesineachconversation,discovertheroleorrolestheotherortheothersareplaying,andthenproceedtoconstructalittledramaticencounter,muchofwhichinvolvesrespectingothersfaces.Alltheworldisastage,andweareplayers!,n,PartIIISomeFeaturesofConversation,Speechcanbeplannedorunplanned.Weshouldnotethatalotofspeechhasacertainamountofplanninginit:itmaynotbeallthoughtoutandcarefullyplanned,butpartsmaybepre-plannedtoagreaterorlesserextent.Unplannedspeechistalkwhichisnotthoughtoutpriortoitsexpression.Thesyntaxofunplannedconversationisalsonotatallthatofformal,editedwrittenprose.Itiscomposedofutterancesthatareoftenfragmentedandoverlapping.However,unplannedspeechisnotunorganizedspeech.,Whenwelookathowactualspeechorconversationisorganized,webegintoappreciatehowcomplexitisassoonaswetrytodeviseanykindofsystemfortalkingaboutthevariousbitsandpiecesthatoccurandrecur.However,findingtheorganizationalprinciplesusedoffersussomehope.Eventhemostunpredictableofconversationsislikelytomakeuseofsuchprinciples;infact,wemightarguethatsomethingisaconversationnotsomuchbyreasonofwhatwassaidbutbyreasonofhowitwassaid,i.e.,bytheuseofcertainprinciplesthatweemploytimeandtimeagaintostructurewhatwewanttosay.Whatspeakersandlistenershaveisasetofsuchprinciples;whattheydoinaparticularconversationisdrawonthatset.Itisalsosometimessaidthatconversationsarelocallymanaged,i.e.,theyactuallyproceedwithoutanyconsciousplanandtheparticipantssimplyrelyonusingtheprinciplesthatareavailabletothemtoachieveanywiderobjectivestheyhave.,1.Adjacencyp