国外组织行为学课件皮尔森ch09.ppt

Chapter9Leadership,LearningObjectives,Defineleadershipanddiscusstheroleofformalandstrategicleadership.Explainandcriticallyevaluatethetraitapproachtoleadership.Explaintheconceptsofleaderconsideration,initiatingstructure,reward,andpunishmentbehaviourandtheirconsequences.,LearningObjectives,DescribeandevaluateFiedlersContingencyTheory,CognitiveResourceTheory,andHousesPath-GoalTheory.ExplainhowandwhentouseparticipativeleadershipusingtheVroomandJagomodel.DescribeandevaluateLeader-Member-ExchangeTheory.,LearningObjectives,Discussthemeritsoftransactionalandtransformationalleadership.Defineanddiscussethicalandauthenticleadership.Explaintherolethatcultureplaysinleadershipeffectivenessanddescribegloballeadership.Describegenderdifferencesinleadershipandexplainwhywomenareunderrepresentedinleadershiprolesinorganizations.,WhatIsLeadership?,Theinfluencethatparticularindividualsexertonthegoalachievementofothersinanorganizationalcontext.Effectiveleadershipexertsinfluenceinawaythatachievesorganizationalgoals.,StrategicLeadership,Leadershipthatinvolvestheabilitytoanticipate,envision,maintainflexibility,thinkstrategically,andworkwithotherstoinitiatechangesthatwillcreateaviablefuturefortheorganization.Strategicleadersareopenandhonestintheirinteractionswiththeorganizationsstakeholdersandtheyfocusonthefuture.,FormalLeadership,Individualswithtitlessuchasmanager,executive,supervisor,anddepartmentheadoccupyformalorassignedleadershiproles.Theyareexpectedtoinfluenceothers,andtheyaregivenspecificauthoritytodirectemployees.Individualsmightalsoemergetooccupyinformalleadershiproles.Theydonothaveformalauthority.,AreLeadersBorn?TheSearchforLeadershipTraits,Theassumptionthatthosewhobecomeleadersanddoagoodjobofitpossessaspecialsetoftraitsthatdistinguishthemfromothers.,ResearchonLeadershipTraits,ThesearchforleadershiptraitsbeganduringWorldWarI.Traitsareindividualcharacteristicssuchasphysicalattributes,intellectualability,andpersonality.Sometraitsareassociatedwithleadership.,TraitsAssociatedwithLeadershipEffectiveness,ResearchonLeadershipTraits(continued),Threeofthe“BigFive”dimensionsofpersonality(agreeableness,extraversion,opennesstoexperience)arerelatedtoleadershipbehaviours.Intelligenceisrelatedtoleadershipbutnotasstronglyaspreviouslythought.,LimitationsoftheTraitApproach,Itisdifficulttodeterminewhethertraitsmaketheleaderorwhethertheopportunityforleadershipproducesthetraits.Doesnottelluswhatleadersdotoinfluenceotherssuccessfully.Itdoesnottakeintoaccountthesituationinwhichleadershipoccurs.,LimitationsoftheTraitApproach(continued),Sometraitsareassociatedwithleadershipsuccess.Traitsalonearenotsufficientforsuccessfulleadership.Traitsareonlyapreconditionforcertainactionsthataleadermusttakeinordertobesuccessful.,TheBehaviourofLeaders,Themostinvolved,systematicstudyofleadershipwasbegunatOhioStateUniversityinthe1940s.Employeesdescribedtheirsuperiorsalonganumberofbehaviouraldimensions.Theresultsrevealedtwobasickindsofbehaviour:ConsiderationInitiatingstructure,Consideration,Theextenttowhichaleaderisapproachableandshowspersonalconcernandrespectforemployees.Theconsiderateleaderisseenasfriendlyandegalitarian,expressesappreciationandsupport,andisprotectiveofgroupwelfare.,InitiatingStructure,Thedegreetowhichaleaderconcentratesongroupgoalattainment.Thestructuringleaderclearlydefinesandorganizeshisorherroleandtherolesoffollowers,stressesstandardprocedures,schedulestheworktobedone,andassignsemployeestoparticulartasks.,TheConsequencesofConsiderationandStructure,Considerationandinitiatingstructurebothcontributepositivelytoemployeesmotivation,jobsatisfaction,andleadereffectiveness.Considerationismorestronglyrelatedtofollowersatisfaction,motivation,andleadereffectiveness.,TheConsequencesofConsiderationandStructure(continued),Initiatingstructureisslightlymorestronglyrelatedtoleaderjobperformanceandgroupperformance.Therelativeimportanceofconsiderationandinitiatingstructurevariesaccordingtothenatureoftheleadershipsituation.,TheConsequencesofConsiderationandStructure:TheNatureoftheSituation,Whenemployeesareunderahighdegreeofpressureduetodeadlines,uncleartasks,orexternalthreat,initiatingstructureincreasessatisfactionandperformance.Whenthetaskisintrinsicallysatisfying,theneedforhighconsiderationandhighstructureisgenerallyreduced.,TheConsequencesofConsiderationandStructure:TheNatureoftheSituation,Whenthegoalsandmethodsofperformingthejobareveryclearandcertain,considerationshouldpromoteemployeesatisfaction,whilestructureshouldpromotedissatisfaction.Whenemployeeslackknowledgeastohowtoperformajob,orthejobitselfhasvaguegoalsormethods,considerationbecomeslessimportant,whileinitiatingstructuretakesonadditionalimportance.,TheConsequencesofConsiderationandStructure:TheNatureoftheSituation,Theeffectsofconsiderationandinitiatingstructuredependoncharacteristicsofthetask,theemployee,andthesettinginwhichworkisperformed.,LeaderRewardandPunishmentBehaviours,Leaderrewardbehaviourprovidesemployeeswithcompliments,tangiblebenefits,anddeservedspecialtreatment.Whensuchrewardsaremadecontingentonperformance,employeesshouldperformatahighlevelandexperiencejobsatisfaction.,LeaderRewardandPunishmentBehaviours(continued),Leaderpunishmentbehaviourinvolvestheuseofreprimandsorunfavourabletaskassignmentsandtheactivewithholdingofraises,promotions,andotherrewards.Whenpunishmentisperceivedasrandomandnotcontingentonemployeebehaviour,employeesreactnegativelywithgreatdissatisfaction.,LeaderRewardandPunishmentBehaviours(continued),Leadercontingentrewardandpunishmentbehaviourispositivelyrelatedtoemployeesperceptions,attitudes,andbehaviour.Non-contingentpunishmentbehaviourisrelatedtounfavourableoutcomes.Relationshipsaremuchstrongerwhenrewardsandpunishmentaremadecontingentonemployeebehaviour.,LeaderRewardandPunishmentBehaviours(continued),Themannerinwhichleadersadministerrewardsandpunishmentisacriticaldeterminantoftheireffectiveness.Leaderrewardandpunishmentbehaviourleadstomorepositiveperceptionsofjusticeandlowerroleambiguity.,SituationalTheoriesofLeadership,Thesituationreferstothesettinginwhichinfluenceattemptsoccur.Thebasicpremiseofsituationaltheoriesofleadershipisthattheeffectivenessofaleadershipstyleiscontingentonthesetting.,SituationalTheoriesofLeadership(continued),Thesettingincludesthecharacteristicsoftheemployees,thenatureofthetasktheyareperforming,andcharacteristicsoftheorganization.Twosituationaltheoriesofleadershipthatareamongthebestknownandmoststudied:FiedlersContingencyTheoryHousesPath-GoalTheory,FiedlersContingencyTheory,Theassociationbetweenleadershiporientationandgroupeffectivenessiscontingenton(dependson)theextenttowhichthesituationisfavourableforexertinginfluence.Somesituationsaremorefavourablethanothers,andthesesituationsrequiredifferentorientationsonthepartoftheleader.,LeadershipOrientation,LeadershiporientationismeasuredbyhavingaleaderdescribetheirLeastPreferredCo-Worker(LPC).LeastPreferredCo-Workerisacurrentorpastco-workerwithwhomaleaderhashadadifficulttimeaccomplishingatask.,LeadershipOrientation(continued),TheleaderwhodescribestheLPCrelativelyfavourably(ahighLPCscore)isconsideredtoberelationshiporiented.TheleaderwhodescribestheLPCrelativelyunfavourably(alowLPCscore)isconsideredtobetaskoriented.,LeadershipOrientation(continued),FiedlerhasarguedthattheLPCscorerevealsapersonalitytraitthatreflectstheleadersmotivationalstructure.TheLPCscoreisnotameasureofconsiderationorinitiatingstructurewhichareobservedbehaviours.TheLPCscoreisanattitudeoftheleadertowardworkrelationships.,SituationalFavourableness,Situationalfavourablenessisthe“contingency”partofContingencyTheory.ItspecifieswhenaparticularLPCorientationshouldcontributemosttogroupeffectiveness.,SituationalFavourableness(continued),Factorsthataffectsituationalfavourableness,inorderofimportance,arethefollowing:Leader-memberrelationsTaskstructurePositionpower,SituationalFavourableness(continued),Thesituationismostfavourableforleadershipwhen:Leader-memberrelationsaregoodThetaskisstructuredTheleaderhasstrongpositionpower,SituationalFavourableness(continued),Thesituationisleastfavourableforleadershipwhen:Leader-memberrelationsarepoorThetaskisunstructuredTheleaderhasweakpositionpower,PredictionsofLeaderEffectivenessfromFiedlersContingencyTheoryofLeadership,TheContingencyModel,Themodelindicatesthatataskorientation(lowLPC)ismosteffectivewhentheleadershipsituationisveryfavourableorwhenitisveryunfavourable.Arelationshiporientation(highLPC)ismosteffectiveinconditionsofmediumfavourability.,ResearchEvidence,Thetheoryhasbeenthesubjectofmuchdebate.TheexactmeaningoftheLPCscoreisnotclear.Amajorsourceofthemanyinconsistentfindingsisthesmallsamplesizesusedinmanystudies.Recentreviewshaveconcludedthatthereisreasonablesupportforthetheory.Thetheoryneedssomerefinement.,CognitiveResourceTheory(CRT),Aleadershiptheorythatfocusesontheconditionsinwhichaleaderscognitiveresources(intelligence,expertise,andexperience)contributetoeffectiveleadership.Leaderintelligenceispredictedtobemostimportantwhentheleaderisdirective,thegroupsupportstheleader,andthesituationislow-stress.Inhigh-stresssituationsaleaderscognitiveresourcesareimpaired,sotherehisorherworkexperiencewillbemostimportant.,ResearchEvidence,Researchsupportsthepredictionthatexperiencepredictsperformanceinhigh-stresssituations,whileintelligencepredictsperformanceinlow-stresssituations.Leaderintelligenceismorestronglyrelatedtogroupperformancewhentheleaderisdirectiveandhasthesupportofthegroup.CRTindicatesthattraitsareimportantforleadershipeffectivenessincertainsituations.,HousesPath-GoalTheory,RobertHousestheoryconcernedwiththesituationsunderwhichvariousleaderbehavioursaremosteffective.Path-GoalTheoryisconcernedwithleaderbehaviours.Themostimportantactivitiesofleadersarethosethatclarifythepathstovariousgoalsofinteresttoemployees.,HousesPath-GoalTheory(continued),Theopportunitytoachievesuchgoalsshouldpromotejobsatisfaction,leaderacceptance,andhigheffort.Theeffectiveleaderformsaconnectionbetweenemployeegoalsandorganizationalgoals.,HousesPath-GoalTheory(continued),Toachievejobsatisfactionandleaderacceptance,leaderbehaviourmustbeperceivedasimmediatelysatisfyingorasleadingtofuturesatisfaction.Topromoteemployeeeffort,leadersmustmakerewardsdependentonperformanceandensurethatemployeeshaveaclearpictureofhowtheycanachievetheserewards.,LeaderBehaviour,Path-GoalTheoryisconcernedwithfourspecifickindsofleaderbehaviour:DirectivebehaviourSupportivebehaviourParticipativebehaviourAchievement-orientedbehaviour,SituationalFactors,Theeffectivenessofeachsetofbehavioursdependsonthesituationthattheleaderencounters.Path-GoalTheoryisconcernedwithtwoprimaryclassesofsituationalfactors:EmployeecharacteristicsEnvironmentalfactors,ThePath-GoalTheoryofLeadership,SituationalFactors(continued),Differenttypesofemployeesneedorpreferdifferentformsofleadership:Highneedachieversshouldworkwellunderachievement-orientedleadership.Employeeswhoprefertobetoldwhatdodorespondbesttodirectiveleadership.Whenemployeeshavelowtaskabilities,theywillappreciatedirectiveleadership.,SituationalFactors(continued),Theeffectivenessofleadershipbehaviourdependsontheparticularworkenvironment:Whentasksareclearandroutine,directiveleadershipisredundantandunnecessaryandparticipativeleadershipisnotuseful.Whentasksarechallengingbutambiguous,directiveandparticipativeleadershipiseffective.Whenajobisfrustratingordissatisfying,supportiveleadershipismosteffective.,SituationalFactors(continued),Leadersmighthavetotailortheirbehaviourtotheneeds,abilities,andpersonalitiesofindividualemployees.Effectiveleadersshouldtakeadvantageofthemotivatingandsatisfyingaspectsofjobswhileoffsettingorcompensatingforthosejobaspectsthatdemotivateordissatisfy.,ResearchEvidence,Thereissubstantialevidencethatsupportiveorconsiderateleaderbehaviourismostbeneficialinsupervisingroutine,frustrating,ordissatisfyingjobs.Thereissomeevidencethatdirectiveorstructuringleaderbehaviourismosteffectiveonambiguous,less-structuredjobs.Thetheoryworksbetterinpredictingemployeesjobsatisfactionandacceptanceoftheleaderthaninpredictingjobperformance.,ParticipativeLeadership:InvolvingEmployeesinDecisions,Participativeleadershipmeansinvolvingemployeesinmakingwork-relateddecisions.Leaderscanvaryintheextenttowhichtheyinvolveemployeesindecisionmaking.Minimally,participationinvolvesobtainingemployeeopinionsbeforemakingadecision.Maximally,itallowsemployeestomaketheirowndecisionswithinagreed-onlimits.,ParticipativeLeadership:InvolvingEmployeesinDecisions(continued),Participationcaninvolveindividualemployeesortheentiregroupofemployeesthatreportstotheleader.Thechoiceofanindividualorgroupparticipationstrategyshouldbetailoredtospecificsituations.,PotentialAdvantagesofParticipativeLeadership,MotivationParticipationcanincreasethemotivationofemployees.QualityParticipationcanenhancethequalityofdecisions.,PotentialAdvantagesofParticipativeLeadership(continued),AcceptanceParticipationcanincreasetheemployeesacceptanceofdecisions.Thisisespeciallyimportantwhenissuesoffairnessareinvolved.,PotentialProblemsofParticipativeLeadership,TimeandEnergyParticipationrequiresspecificbehavioursonthepartoftheleaderthatusetimeandenergy.LossofPowerSomeleadersfeelthataparticipativestylewillreducetheirpowerandinfluence.,PotentialProblemsofParticipativeLeadership(continued),LackofReceptivityEmployeesmightnotbereceptivetoparticipationortheymightlacktheknowledgetocontributeeffectivelytodecisions.,VroomandJagosSituationalModelofParticipation,VictorVroomandArthurJagodevelopedamodelthatattemptstospecifyinapracticalmannerwhenleadersshoulduseparticipationandtowhatextenttheyshoulduseit.Theybeganwiththerecognitionthattherearevariousdegreesofparticipationthataleadercanexhibit.,VroomandJagosSituationalModelofParticipation(continued),Forissuesinvolvingtheentireworkgroup,arangeofbehavioursisplausible(Astandsforautocratic,Cforconsultation,andGforgroup).,VroomandJagosSituationalModelofParticipation(continued),AI:Yousolvetheproblemormakethedecisionyourself.AII:Youobtainthenecessaryinformationfromyouremployees,thendecidethesolutiontotheproblemyourself.CI:Yousharetheproblemwiththerelevantemployeesindividually,gettingtheirideasandsuggestions,thenyoumakethedecision.,VroomandJagosSituationalModelofParticipation(continued),CII:Yousharetheproblemwithyouremployeesasagroup,obtainingtheircollectiveideasandsuggestions,thenyoumakethedecision.GII:Yousharetheproblemwithyouremployeesasagroupandtogetheryougenerateandevaluatealternativesandattempttoreachagreement(consensus)onasolution.Whichofthesestrategiesismosteffective?,VroomandJagosSituationalModelofParticipation(continued),Themosteffectivestrategydependsonthesituationorproblemathand.Theleadersgoalshouldbetomakehigh-qualitydecisionstowhichemployeeswillbeadequatelycommittedwithoutunduedelay.Todothis,theleadermustconsiderquestionsinadecisiontree.,VroomandJagosSituationalModelofParticipation(continued),Thequestionsareorientedtowardpreservingeitherdecisionqualityorcommitmenttothedecision.Bytracingaproblemthroughthedecisiontree,theleaderencounterstheprescribeddegreeofparticipationforthatproblem.,VroomandJagoDecisionTreeQuestions,Howimportantisthetechnicalqualityofthisdecision?(qualityrequirement)Howimportantissubordinatecommitmenttothedecision?(commitmentrequirement)Doyouhavesufficientinformationtomakeahigh-qualitydecision?Istheproblemwell-structured?,VroomandJagoDecisionTreeQuestions(continued),Ifyouweretomakethedecisionbyyourself,isitreasonablycertainthatyoursubordinateswouldbecommittedtothedecision?Dosubordinatessharetheorganizationalgoalstobeattainedinsolvingtheproblem?,VroomandJagoDecisionTreeQuestions(continued),Isconflictamongsubordinatesoverpreferredsolutionslikely?Dosubordinateshavesufficientinformationtomakeahigh-qualitydecision?,VroomandJagosSituationalModelofParticipation(continued),Bytracingtheproblemthroughthedecisiontree,theleaderencounterstheprescribeddegreeofparticipationforthatproblem.Thetreeshowsthefastestapproachpossiblethatstillmaintainsdecisionqualityandcommitment.Ifaleaderiswillingtosacrificesomespeed,amoreparticipativeapproachcouldstimulateemployeedevelopment.,ResearchEvidence,Themodelhassubstantialresearchsupport.Followingthemodelsprescriptionsismorelikelytoleadtosuccessfulmanagerialdecisionsthanunsuccessfuldecisions.Thereissubstantialevidencethatemployeeswhohavetheopportunitytoparticipateinwork-relateddecisionsreportmorejobsatisfactionthanthosewhodonot.Forparticipationtobetranslatedintohigherproductivity,certainfacilitatingconditionsmustexist.,ResearchEvidence(continued),Participationshouldworkbestwhen:Employeesfeelfavourablytowardit.Employeesareintelligentandknowledgeableabouttheissueathand.Whenthetaskiscomplexenoughtomakeparticipationuseful.TheseconditionsareincorporatedintotheVroomandJagomodel.,Leader-MemberExchange(LMX)Theory,Atheoryofleadershipthatfocusesonthequalityoftherelationshipthatdevelopsbetweenaleaderandanemployee.Arelationship-basedapproachtoleadership.Effectiveleadershipprocessesresultwhenleadersandemployeesdevelopandmaintainhigh-qualitysocialexchangerelationships.,ResearchEvidence,HighLMXinvolvesahighdegreeofmutualinfluenceandobligationaswellastrust,loyalty,andrespectbetweenaleaderandanemployee.LowLMXischaracterizedbylowtrust,respect,obligation,andmutualsupport.Higher-qualityLMXrelationshipsresultinpositiveoutcomesforleaders,employees,workunits,andorganizations.,TransactionalandTransformationalLeadership,Transactionalleadershipisleadershipthatisbasedonafairlystraightforwardexchangebetweentheleaderandthefollowers.Transactionalleadershipbehaviourinvolves:ContingentrewardbehaviourManagementbyexception,ManagementByException,Theleadertakescorrectiveactiononthebasisofresultsofleader-followertransactions.Theleadermonitorsfollowerbehaviour,anticipatesproblems,andtakescorrectiveactionsbeforethebehaviourcreatesseriousproblems.,TransformationalLeadership,Transformationalleadershipisleadershipthatprovidesfollowerswithanewvisionthatinstillstruecommitment.Transformationalleaderschangethebeliefsandattitudesoffollowerstocorrespondwithanewvisionandmotivatesthemtoachieveperformancebeyondexpectations.,TransformationalLeaders,Popularexamplesoftransformationalleaders:Herb