语言学精品课ppt-09.ppt

Topic9,Sociolinguistics,Definition:thesubdisciplineoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguageinsocialcontext.Scopesofstudy:languagevariationandlanguageusesindifferentspeechcommunitiesincludingregional,ethnicandsocialgroups.theimpactofextralinguisticfactorsonlanguageuse,suchasage,gender,profession,andsocialstatus.standardlanguageorlinguafranca,pidgin,creole,diglossiaorbilingualism,1.Languagevariation,Languageasameansofsocialcommunicationisneverahomogeneoussystemwithahomogeneousgroupofspeakers.Languageusevariesfromonespeechcommunitytoanother,fromoneregionalgrouptoanother,fromonesocialgrouptoanother,andevenfromoneindividualtoanother.,1.1.Speechcommunity,Insociolinguisticstudies,speakersaretreatedasmembersofsocialgroups.Thesocialgroupisisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Aspeechcommunityisthusdefinedasagroupofpeoplewhoformacommunity(whichmayhaveasfewmembersasafamilyorasmanymembersasacountry),andsharethesamelanguageoraparticularvarietyoflanguage.,Manydifferencesexistinspeechcommunitiesandthesedifferencescorrelatewiththeexistenceofsocialgroupswithinthecommunity.Thesedifferencesmaybecausedbyregional,socialandethnicfactors.,1.2.Speechvariety,Alsoknownaslanguagevariety,referstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Thedistinctivecharacteristicsofaspeechvarietymaybelexical,phonological,morphological,syntactic,oracombinationoflinguisticfeatures.Threetypesofspeechvariety:regionaldialects,sociolectsorsocialdialects,andfunctionalspeechvarietiesknownasregisters.,1.3.Regionalvariation,Regionalvariationisspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.Regionalvariationoflanguageisthemostdiscernibleanddefinable.Geographicalbarriersarethemajorsourceofregionalvariationoflanguage,loyaltytoonesnativespeechandphysicalandpsychologicalresistancetochangeareamongotherreasonsofsuchvariation.AmericanEnglish,BritishEnglish,AustralianEnglish,ChineseEnglish,AfricanEnglish,MajordialectsofAmericanEnglish:,Languageplanning,Certainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentorgovernmentagencyofacountry,chooseaparticularspeechvarietyandspreadtheuseofit,includingitspronunciationandspellingsystems,acrossregionalboundaries.,1.4.Socialvariation,Twopeoplewhowerebornandbroughtupinthesametownandspeakthesameregionaldialectmayspeakdifferentlybecauseofsocialfactors,suchassocioeconomic,educational,occupationalandethnicbackgrounds,aswellastheirsexandage.,1.5.Stylisticvariation,Asocially-consciousspeakermustemployavarietyofstylesofspeechknownasregistersaccordingtothespecificsituation:whoisspeakingtowhomaboutwhatunderwhatcircumstancesforwhatpurpose.Distinctivewords,usingwordsorphrasesinparticularway,andsometimesbyspecialgrammaticalconstructions,suchasscientificlanguage,orlegallanguage.,AscaleofstylesinalluseofEnglish.EachofusworksnotjustwithoneEnglishbutwithmanyEnglishes,andthewidertherangeofourlifeandthemorevariousthecontactswehave,thewiderandthesupplermustbeourcommandoverarangeofEnglishstyles,eachofwhichweknowhowtouseconsistently.,1.6.Idiolectalvariation,Aspeakerslinguisticperformanceisheterogeneous,ratherthanhomogeneous.Whenanindividualspeaks,whatisactuallyproducedisauniquelanguagesystemofthespeaker,expressedwithintheoverallsystemofaparticularlanguage.Suchapersonaldialectisreferredtoasidiolect.,Idiolectis,thus,apersonaldialectofanindividualspeakerthatcombinesaspectsofalltheelementsregardingregional,social,andstylisticvariation,inoneformoranother,concerningvoicequality,pitchandspeechrhythm.Everyspeakerofalanguageis,inastrictersense,aspeakerofadistinctidiolect;whatmakesanindividualuniqueis,amongotherthings,ishisorherdialect.Thatswhywecandistinguishapersonwearefamiliarwithjustbytheirspeechlongbeforeweseetheirface.,2.Standardandnon-standardlanguage.,Aregionaldialect,asthetermsuggests,isusuallyspokenbyagroupofpeoplelivinginthesameregion.Aregionaldialectmaygainstatusandbecomestandardizedasthenationalorofficiallanguageofacountry,andspokenbymost,ifnotbyall,ofitscitizens.Throughcross-culturalcommunication,aregionaldialectmaybeusedasthecommontongueknownaslinguafranca,between,oramong,groupsofpeoplespeakingdifferentdialectsorlanguages,ordevelopintoacontactlanguageknownaspidgin,spokenbythepeopleofanotherregion.Apidginizeddialectmayexpendandeventuallybecomethenativelanguageofacertainpopulationknownascreole.,Whathappenstoregionaldialect,Cross-culturalcommunicationRegionaldialectpidginusedasL1bychildrencreole,2.1.Standardandnonstandardlanguage,Thestandardlanguageisssuperposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasforeignorsecondlanguage.Thestandardlanguageservesasayardstickagainstwhichallothervarietiesaremeasured.,Nonstandardorvernacularlanguages:,languagesotherthanstandardlanguage.Itisnomorejustifiabletosaythatonevarietyofalanguageisbetterthananyotherthantosaythatoneskincolorsuggestsabetterracethananyotherskincolor.Inviewoflanguageasaneffectivemeansofcommunication,nosingledialectofalanguage,beitstandardornonstandard,isanymorecorrect,anymorelogical,oranypurerthananyotherdialectofthelanguage.,Alldialectsareequallyeffectiveinexpressingideas.Ofcourse,astheuseoflanguagehassocialconsequences,afluentspeakerofthesociallymoreprestigiousstandardnationallanguageisacceptedmoreeasilybytheadministrativeandeducatedcommunitiesofthesociety.,Thestandardizationofaregionaldialectisnotonlytheresultofgovernmentpolicy,butmoreorlessdeterminedbyhistoricalandculturalfactors,suchasthelanguageofthecapitalcity,orthelanguageoftherulingclass.,Astandardlanguagemayormaynotbethenationalorofficiallanguage.Alanguageorvarietyofthelanguagegetsstandardizedwhenitfunctionsasthenationalandculturalidentityofthespeakers,oracceptedbythegovernmentandbecometheofficialtongueforpoliticalandculturalpurposes.Thestandardlanguageofacountrymayceasetobeusedasanationalorofficiallanguageovertheyearsofvigoroussocialchanges.Officiallanguageandstandardlanguagemaynotbeusedasthenationallanguagebecauseitfailstosymbolizethenationalismofanationwithdistinctethnicandlinguisticbackgrounds.,2.2.Linguafrancas,Alinguafrancaisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasmediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeopleofdiverselinguisticbackgrounds.Forthisreason,alinguafrancamustbeanagreed-upon“commontongue”usedbypeoplethrowninsocialcontactforvariouspurposes.Alinguafrancamay,butdoesnotneedto,beanativelanguagecurrentlyspokenbyaparticularpeople.,Thetermlingualfrancacanbegeneralizedtorefertoanyotherlanguageusedastradeorcommunicationmedium.Thusanylanguagecanbelinguafranca.French,atonetime,was“thelinguafrancaofdiplomacyofthewholeworld,andLatinandGreekwerethelinguafrancaofChristianityintheWestandEast,respectivelyforamillennium.,ThespokenlanguageofmodernChinese普通话knownasthe“commonspeech”thatembodiesthepronunciationofBeijingDialect,thegrammarofNorthernChinesedialectsandthevocabularyofmoderncolloquialChinese,servesasaneffectivelinguafrancaamongspeakersof56differentnationalities.Linguafrancamaybeusedinternationallyacrosstheworld.Englishissuchaninternationallinguafranca.,2.3.Pidgins,Apidginisavarietyoflanguagethatisgenerallyusedbynativespeakersofotherlanguagesasamediumofcommunication.Itisakindofcontactlanguage,ormarginallanguageusedbypeoplewhoseculturesaresharplyseparatedandwhosebusinessisveryspecialized.TokPisinoriginallycalledMelanesianPidginEnglish,iswidelyusedinPapuaNewGuinea.Likemostpidgins,manyofitslexicalandmuchofitsstructurearebasedononlyonelanguageofthetwoormorelanguages,inthiscaseEnglish.PrincePhilip,thehusbandofQueenElizabethofEngland,onavisittoNewGuinea,wasreferredtoasfellabelongMrs.Queen.,TokPisin:Midrnimanlongkillimwanpelasnek.English:Idreamofkillingasnake.Asacontactlanguage,apidginmaycontainsignificantgrammaticalfeaturesoftwoormorelanguages.,2.4.Creole,Onedistinguishingcharacteristicofpidginlanguagesisthatnoonelearnsthemasnativespeakers.Whenapidgincomestobeadoptedbyacommunityasitsnativetongue,andchildrenlearnitasafirstlanguage,thelanguageiscalledacreole;thepidginhasbeencreoled.Haitiancreole,basedonFrench,developedinthisway.,Howwillcreolesdevelop?,i.Reachstablerelationshipwithcommunitylanguage.ii.Beextinguishedbystandardlanguage.iii.Becomeastandardlanguage.iv.Developapost-creolecontinuum.,3.Diglossiaandbilingualism,Tofulfilldifferentneedsofsocialcommunication,peoplelivinginthesameareaoftenhavespeakalternativelytwodialectsorsimplytwodifferentlanguages.Whenpeopleofacommunityspeaktwodifferentregionalornationaldialectsfordifferentpurposes,sociolinguisticsituationsknownasdiglossiaandbilingualismemerge.,3.1.Diglossia,Diglossiausuallydescribesasituationinwhichtwodifferentvarietiesoflanguageco-existinaspeechcommunity,eachwithadistinctrangeofpurelysocialfunctionandappropriateforcertainsituations.HighvarietyorH-varietyLowvarietyorL-variety,Forsocio-culturalreasons,thehighvarietyisregardedbymanypeopleasamorecorrectorpurerversionofthelanguage,reflectingasocialbiasagainstthemorecolloquiallowvariety.Diglossiaisanotauniversalphenomenon.It,forexample,hardlyexistsinEnglish-speakingcountriessuchasBritainandUnitedStates.,3.2.Bilingualism,Bilingualismreferstoalinguisticsituationinwhichtwostandardlanguagesareusedeitherbyanindividualorbyagroupofspeakers,suchastheinhabitantsofaparticularregionoranation.Atypicalexampleofabilingualcommunityisanethnicghettowheremost,ifnotall,ofitsinhabitantsareeitherimmigrantsorchildrenofimmigrants.Forexample,insomeChineseimmigrantfamilyoftheUSA,EnglishisusedbythefamilymembersoutsidetheirhomeandChineseisspokenathome.Thiskindofclearfunctionaldifferentiationofthetwolanguagesinrespectofspeechsituationsisknownasdomains:theHomeDomain,theEmploymentDomain.,Code-Switch:,abilingualspeakeroftenusetwolanguagesalternativelyduringconversationwithotherbilingualspeaker,suchasthecasebetweentwobusinessmenwhocanspeakChineseinNewYork.TheymayspeakEnglishfoeseriousmattersandswitchtoChinesewhendiscussingpersonalthings.Orinthemiddleofaspeechthespeakermaychangetoanotherlanguageonetimeoranother.,4.Ethnicdialect,Anethniclanguagevarietyisspokenisasocialdialectoflanguage,oftenoccurringacrossregionaldifferences.Anethnicdialectisspokenmainlybyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolation,suchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation.,4.1.BlackEnglish,acasestudyofethnicdialect,Spokenmostlybyalargesectionofnon-middle-classAmericanBlacks.ItisaregardedbylinguistsanonstandarddialectofAmericanEnglish.PhonologicalfeaturesofBE:frequentsimplificationofconsonantclustersattheendofwordswhenoneofthetwoconsonantsisanalveolar/t/,/d/,/s/,or/z/.passedpass,deskdesDeletionofsomeword-finalstopconsonantsinwordslikesideandborrowed.,SyntacticfeaturesofBE:,frequentabsenceofthevariousformsofthecopula“be”.BlackEnglishStandardEnglishTheymine.Theyremine.Youcrazy.Yourecrazy.Thatmybike.Thatismybike.,Thesystematicuseoftheexpression“itis”whereStandardEnglishuses“thereis”inthesenseof“thereexists”:a.IsitaMr.Johnsoninthisoffice?b.Shesbeenawonderfulladyanditsnothintoogoodforher.,Theuseofdoublenegative:a.Hedontknownothing.b.Iaintafraidofnoghosts.c.Dontnobodyneverhelpmedomywork.D.Hedontevergonowhere.,5.Socialdialect,Socialdialects,orsociolects,arevarietiesoflanguageusedbypeoplebelongingtoparticularsocialclasses.Thespeakersofasocialdialectusuallysharesimilarsocialbackgrounds:education,age,andgender.,5.1.Educationalvarieties,Differencesexistamongpeoplewhohavedroppedoutofschoolandthosewhohavefinishedtheircollegeeducation.Oneexamplecomesfrompronunciation.Theuseofthe/n/soundasopposedthevelarnasalfortheword-final“-ing”inwordlike“walking”and“going”hasbeenfoundtobemuchmorecommonamongspeakerswithoutacollegedegreethanamongspeakerswithahighereducationbackground.,5.2.Agevarieties,Thestrikingvariationofageiswellillustratedbychildrenslanguageasitdevelops,regardingalllevelsoflanguagefromphonologytovocabularyandsyntax.Agedivisionsare2,5and12.,5.3.Gendervarieties,Variationinlanguageuseisalsoassociatedwiththesexofindividualspeakers.Sex-preferreddifferentiationintermsofspeechvarietiesofmalesandfemalesexistsinallnaturallanguagesacrosstheworld.Womeninmanycountriesaremorestatus-consciousthanmen,andthereforemoreawareofthesocialsignificanceoflinguisticvariables.,Possiblereasonsforthedifferencesare:a.Womenareinasecondarypositionsb.Womeninmanyculturesarerelatedsociallybytheiroccupation,income,andotherabilities,Majordifferences:,FemalesMalesLexiconlovely,nice,darling,cutemauve,Dearme.Mygoodness.Mygod.Man,taboosSyntaxinterrogativedeclarativeImperatives,Sexistlanguage:,languageusethatreflectsobvioussexprejudice.Theuseofsexistlanguagedoesnotmeanthatitisthelanguagethatissexistbutratherthesocialattitudeconnotedinthelanguageissexist.,Sexistlanguageconcerningcareer:AcareermanAcareerwomanaggressivepushygoodondetailspickyfollowsthroughdoesntknowwhentoquitoutspokenmouthyexerciseauthoritydiligentlypowermadclose-mouthedsecretiveclimbedtheladderofsuccesssleptherwaytothetop,Occupationsassociatedwithmales:president,director,supervisor,manager,professor,doctorOccupationsassociatedwithfemales:secretary,typist,nurse,receptionist,schoolteacher,shop-assistant,ThemeaningsofsomeEnglishwordsreallyechotherealtraditionalrolesofmenandwomeninhistory.CF:governorgovernessmastermistress,careerwomanman,chairman,policeman,AsymmetricgendertermsinEnglish:MaletermFemaleterm:PaulPaulinePrinceprincesscountcountesshosthostessheirheiressdoctorladydoctorheroheroine,Towardscompleteequalityinlanguage:,Associalattitudetowardswomenchangeinrecentyears,linguisticchangesinmanylanguagesaretakingplacethatreflectthefeministmovementandthegrowingawarenessthatlanguageandlanguageusemirrorsocialattitudesandreinforcestereotypesandbias.Thechangecanbesensedinthemorphologicalvariation:,Thechangecanbesensedinthemorphologicalvariation:,TraditionaltermsNewtermsmankindpeoplemanpowerpersonnelmotheringnurturingchairmanchair/moderatormailmanpostalworker/lettercarrierfiremanfirefighterpolicemanpolicesafetyofficersalesmansalesrepresentativedustmansanitationengineertomantooperate,Linguisticformsassociatingsexistprejudicearealwaysintentionallyavoidedincommunication.a.ncaningtheirhouses,womenshouldbethrough.Itsimportanttobethroughwhencleaningahouse.b.Nobodywantsafailinggradetobeonhisrecord.Noindividualswantfailinggradesontheirrecord.,5.4.Registervarieties,Peoplespeakandwriteaccordingtothecircumstancesorsituations.Thisspeechsituationisalsotermedas“register”.Alearnedprofessorspeaksinoneregisterwhenheisorderingameal,anotherwhenheiswooingandanotherwhenheatascholarlyconferencetohispeers,thoughheisspeakingEnglishinallthesesituations.,FieldofdiscourseItconcernsthepurposeandsubjectmatter.Toagreatextent,itdeterminesthevocabularyincommunication.TenorofdiscourseItreferstot