托福作文词汇、句型、修辞、教师版

一语言和修辞 如果说写作的初级阶段还只是要求语法结构没有错误，用词基本正确，而写作的更高要求则不只是看你能否表达思想，而是要看你能否表达得更生动、耐读、有效、地道。 大学英语第五册的第一课是写给学英语的高年级学生看的。作者Fowler在文章中写道：在学生掌握了基本语法和基本词汇后，如何进一步提高英语水平，写出好文章?其中一条就是看你对一个意思有多少种表达。表达的方式越多，你的英语水平就越高，英语文章就越显得生动、耐读。 显然，追求表达的变化(Variety)是五段作文所要求的。具体说来，表达的变化主要指词的变化和句子的变化以及修辞手段的运用。词汇变化1多种表达 尽管许多大学生学完四级英语后基本掌握了4000个以上的词汇，但只这是认知、识别而言，而就产出交流来说，就少得多了。一遇到要表达“许多”“大量”的意思，就只会用“many”，“a lot of”，一碰到要写“越来越多”，就马上用more and more。比如：“More and more people who become more and more rich can buy more and more TV sets”这种用词单调的句子在学生习作中随处可见。实际上英语中表示“许多”、“大量”、“大多数”意思的有相当多的词汇和短语： a) Greatness is built upon tremendous amount of study, practice and devotion. b) A Chinese philosopher once remarked that a leader must have the grace of a good dancer, and there is a great deal of wisdom to this. c) The companies often run into conflicts-a multitude of little things that escalate into big battles. d) Her function is to pass on to students that vast store of knowledge she has acquired. e) But in the evening the overwhelming majority of the public prefers to stay at home to watch a movie rather than go out. f) A sizable percentage of the pioneers were self-disciplined people, but they were almost as intolerant of others views.g) China must face the problem of building upwards to accommodate aconsiderable proportion of its population in high blocks of flats.h) Large segments of the population of many developing countries areeconomically powerless. i) Many across this country are aware of this effect, and a considerable portion of them are hoping a marked reduction in the video violence. j) An organization, for instance, recently examined a very large number of men working in a construction site. k) Thus the bulk of the language acquisition of the high school graduate takes place informally first in the home. 再如：“好学生”，大多数学生就是用good students。而英语中表示“好学生”的有很多：top students，smart students，gifted students，superior students，excellent students，outstanding students 此外，表示“学生”也不一定都用students，可用school boys and girls或college populations等等。 问题不在于这个表达比那个表达更好，而在于变化，也就是说，在一篇文章中尽可能用不同的词来表达同一个意思。我们来看下面一些词语变化的实际应用。1) The principal of a great Philadelphia high school is driven to cry for help in combating the notion that it is undemocratic to run a special program of studies for outstanding boys and girls. Again, when a good independent school in Memphis recently closed, some thoughtful citizens urged that it be taken over by the public school system and used for boys and girls of high ability, that it have entrance requirements and given an advanced program of studies to superior students who were interested and able to take it. -Seymour St. John: The Fifth Freedom好学校: a great high school, a good independent school高级课程: a special program of studies, an advanced program of studies好学生: outstanding boys and girls, boys and girls of high ability, superior students2) Hard work isnt the whole story either. Some of these high-achieving students actually put in fewer hours than their lower-scoring classmates. The students at the top of the class get there by mastering a few basic techniques that others can easily learn. Here, according to education experts and students themselves, are the secrets of A students. -Edwin Kiester: Secrets of A Students成绩优秀学生: high-achieving students, The students at the top of the class, A students3) Is the sole aim of most Americans to make money and possess luxuries which could be called excessive? The majority of Americans would certainly deny this, though most feel proud to amass wealth and possessions through hard work. -The American Character大多数美国人: most Americans, The majority of Americans积聚财富: make money and possess luxuries, amass wealth and possessions 4) Indeed, as one imagine the underground world to become increasingly elaborate, one can visualize much of the food supply eventually deriving from hydroponics growth in artificially illuminated areas underground. -Isaac Asimov想象：imagine, visualize5) The press and television keep showing us the faults of the public figures, until we lose faith and start looking for defects in any person who seems worthy of respect. In a neighbor or a statesman, we try to discover the weaknesses or ugly motives that are surely hiding behind his noble actions. -A Changing Scene缺点: faults, defects, weaknesses6) Retirement often brings many problems surrounding the What do I do with myself today? question, even though there may be no financial cares. Large numbers of people regularly get headaches and other ill-nesses on weekends when they dont have their jobs to go to, and must fend for themselves. It has been observed that unemployment, quite a- side from exerting financial pressures, brings enormous psychological troubles and that many individuals deteriorate rapidly when jobless. -Lonard R. Sayles问题: problems, question, trouble经济拮据: financial cares, financial pressures许多: many, enormous, large numbers of人: people, individuals失业: unemployment, jobless7) A senior executives instinctive capacity to empathize with and gain insights from customers is the single most important skill he or she can use to direct technologies, product and service offerings, indeed, all elements of a companys strategic posture. People like Bill Gates brought this ability to the enterprises they founded. Without it, their ventures might have been short-lived or at least far less successful. But many top- level managers, particularly those at industrial companies, consider customer contact the bailiwick of sales and marketing staff.现代英汉翻译操作高级经理: senior executive, top-level managers公司企业: companies, ventures, enterprises.能力: capacity, skill, ability8) The personal computer revolution happened and it has affected millions of lives. It has led us to places we had barely imagined. We are all beginning another great journey. We arent sure where this one will lead us either, but again I am certain this revolution will touch even more lives and take us all farther. The benefits and problems arising from this upcoming communications revolution will be much greater than those brought about by the PC revolution.-Bill Gates影响: affect, touch把我们带到: lead us, take us引起: arising from, brought about9) What was it that enabled them to become great? Were they born with something special? Or did their greatness have more to do With timing, devotion and, perhaps, an uncompromising personality?. A never surrender attitude. If great achievers share anything, it is a unrelenting drive to succeed. There is a tendency to think that they are endowed with something super-normal. -Michael Ryan天生: be born with, be endowed with特别的: something special, something supernormal永不屈服的精神: A never surrender attitude, an unrelenting drive to succeed伟人: become great, great achievers10) As a child, Einstein became fascinated with the way magnets are drawn to metal. He couldnt stop thinking about this stuff, Simonton pointed out. He became obsessed with problems in physics by the time he was 16, and he never stopped working out them. -Michael Ryan迷住: became fascinated with, became obsessed with思考研究: think about, work out11) Children are entitled to special consideration for two reasons: helplessness and innocence. They have not yet acquired either the faculty of reason or the wisdom of experience. Consequently, they are defenseless and blameless. Thats why we grant them special protection. In an emergency, it is our duty to save them first because they, helpless, have put their lives in our hands. And in wartime, they are supposed to be protected by special immunity because they can have threatened or offended no one. -Charles Kmuthammer受特别保护: be entitled to special consideration, grant them special protection, protected by special immunity无助: helplessness, defenseless, have put their lives in our hands无辜: innocence, blameless, threatened or offended no one12) A typical example of this ability is the case of a woman who claims that her intuition prevented each of her five children from serious mishaps. Another interesting illustration of this six sense involves the famous escape artist.新英语教程第六册举例: example of, illustration of直觉: intuition, six sense13) The deafening noise, and the glare of the engine fire, would have ahad effect on nerves. Further, being moved through the air at a highspeed would do great injury to delicate lungs. The sudden plunging ofa train into the darkness of a tunnel, and the equally sudden rush intofull daylight, would cause great damage to eyesight.损害: have a bad effect on, do great injury to, cause great damage to冲进: plunge, rush14) When parents urge their children to study hard and get good grades,the children know that the payoff will not be social acceptance by theirschoolmates. The rewards are not consistent with values taught at home.回报: payoff, rewards15) Beyond checking the report for clarity and accuracy in the presentation of the result, you should also review it for basic grammatical and mechanical accuracy.检查: check, review16) This new civilization brings with it new family styles; changed waysof working, loving, and living; a new economy; new political conflicts;and beyond all this an altered consciousness as well.新的: new, changed, altered17) Asian parents are able to instill more motivation in their children.But how they imbue their offspring with this kind of motivation.灌输: instill, imbueinstill a sense of responsibility in children给孩子灌输责任意识be imbued with ambition满怀雄心孩子: children, offspring18) The question of what is to be done to regulate and control exploitation of the seabeds is no longer a theoretical matter. It is a problem of international concern.问题: question, matter, problem19) Nowadays, we never allow ourselves the convenience of being temporarily unavailable, even to strangers. With telephones and beepers, people make themselves instantly accessible to everyone at all times.没有一刻联系不上: nevertemporarily unavailable, instantly accessible at all times每个人: even to strangers, to everyone20) Foreigners who understand the degree to which Americans are imbued with the notion that the free, self-reliant individual is the ideal kind of human being will be able to understand many aspects of American behavior and thinking Having ones own bedroom, even as an infant, inculcates in a person the notion that she is entitled to a place of her own where she can be by herself.灌输思想: imbue sb. with the notion, inculcate in sb. the notioninculcate an idea in sb. 把一个想法反复灌输给某人2基本表达 除了以上这些词的表达外，在涉及当代社会问题、科技发展和校园生活的说明文或议论文的写作中，掌握一些基本表达法对于词汇的变化是很有意义的。如：越来越：be increasingly + adj，be on the rise，the growing number of人们认为：it is generallywidely believedheldagreed that许多问题：a host ofa multitude of problems引起人们注意：claim callattract generalpublicworld attention to sth意识到：there is a growing awarenessrealization ofthat，awaken sbTo the factdanger适应新的形势变化：adaptadjustaccommodate oneself to new environmentchange接触各种思想，经历：be exposed to new ideasexperiencesproblems接触社会：come into frequentclose contact with the worldsociety获得成功：achieveaccomplish success提出观点，建议：advanceput forwardcome up with argumentsideas suggestions作出努力：make tremendouspersistentsustained effort to do sthtakegreat pains to do(with workstudy)影响学习，工作：interfere with studieswork产生影响：haveexert a profound influence on lifepersonality，have adramaticundesirable effect on较好地驾驭生活：be a better pilot of ones life剥夺机会权利：deprive oneself of the chancerightopportunity取代旧的方式：substitute fortake the place of the old way采取措施：take effective stepsmeasures to控制我们的环境：takegain increasing control over our own environment躲避危险挑战：shyrun away from the dangerschallenge满足要求：meetsatisfyaccommodate the demand of补偿损失：compensate formake up for the lossdamage解释某现象：account forexplain the phenomenon对很好的了解：have a better understanding / appreciation of，have a new perspective on，providegain an insight into把某因素考虑进去：take sthinto account(consideration)，give much thought to品味人生，自由，青春：savor the lifefreedomyouth培养对信心：developfoster ones interestconfidence in经历变化，困难，艰险：undergoexperience great changeshardshipsexperience表现出自信心等：project ones confidencefeelingimage生活充满不公正的地方：life is full of minor irritationinjustice追求学习职业：pursue ones academic interestprofessional career学习知识，技术：pursueacquire knowledgetechnologyskill被看作学习的榜样：be held up as an good example交流经验，知识：share experienceideasproblemsknowledge发挥，起到重要作用：play an(importantactivegreat)rolepart逃学，缺课：skip schoola classa meetinga lecture知识，经验丰富：rich in knowledgeexperience确立，追求目标：setpursue a goalhigher standard达到目标：achieveaccomplishattain the goalaimobjective克服困难：overcome obstaclesdifficulty面临危险，困难：be confronted(faced)within the face of dangerdifficulty 阻碍了成功：stand in the way of SUCCESS，be an obstaclebarrier to successgrowth阻碍了发展：hamperimpedestunt the development of持传统的看法：hold conventional wisdom发表看法：voiceexpress ones opinion持相反合理的观点：take the oppositefresh view揭穿某种一贯的说法：shatter the myth of求得帮助：enlist ones supporthelp缩小差别：bridgenarrowfill the gapgulf(between city and country)把成功错误归咎于：attributeowe the successfailure to对重要：be indispensableimpostorvital to施加压力：putexert a academic pressure on重视：assignattach much importancesignificance to强调：placeput much emphasisstressvalue on把注意力集中在：focusconcentrate ones attentioneffortsthoughts upon提供机会，信息：provideofferfurnish an opportunityinformation for sb抓住机会：grabseizetake the opportunity得到机会：enjoygain access to a opportunityinformation有可能：there is(littlemuch)possibilitylikelihood thatchancesthe odds are that展开竞争：compete againstwith sbfor the prizepositioncontrolthe mastery of开展运动：conduct(carry onundertakeinitiatelaunchwage)a(vigorousnation-widepublicityadvertising)campaign(foragainst)对我很有没有什么意义：make muchlittle sense to me带来无穷的幸福，满足：be a source of happiness satisfactioncontentmentpridecomplaint献身于：devotededicatecommit oneself to a causecareer大不(没啥两样)一样：make much(1ittleno)difference真正重要的是：what really matterscounts is改变生活旅程：changealter the course of life建立在大量的学习，实践上：built on tremendous amount of study practice进行调查，执行任务：conductcarry out an studytaskexperiment辞去工作学习：leavequit ones jobworkschool参加考试竞赛等：enter(for)the examinationcontest，race参加活动，讨论：take partparticipatebe engaged in sportsactivities discussion影响思想，态度，事件的形成：shape ones thinkingattitude进入大学，社会，家庭，劳力市场，职业：enter a schoolcollegesocietythe work forceprofessionals实现自己的理想愿望：realizefulfillachieve ones dream(hopes wishdesire减轻压力，紧张：reducealleviaterelieve the stresspressuretension提高社会地位：enhanceimproveupgrade social statuspositionstanding rise to the position of leadership提高技术，能力：sharpen(increaseimproveenhanceboost)ones skillability加快，促进发展：acceleratefacilitateadvanceenhanceboostthe development of随着生活节奏的加快：with the quickening pacerhythmtempo of modern lifesociety开阔眼界，兴趣：broaden ones interestoutlook，expand(broadenenlarge)ones mental horizons有助于了解，发展，宣传，解决：contribute muchlittlegreatlyto a better understanding ofthe popularity ofthe growth ofthe solution of有助于解决问题：go a long way to(towards)solving the problem迷恋名利分数：be obsessedpreoccupied with gradesfamefortune把时间花，浪费在：spendwaste time doing sth., put in hoursdoing sth利用机会，技术：make(fullbetter)use oftake advantage of opportunitytime，tapharness technology potentialskillstalent把知识，经验运用到：applyput the theoryknowledgeexperienceto practicedaily lifegood use取得进步：make much progressstridesgains in充分发挥潜力，能力：develop ones abilitypotential to the full，give full play to ones ability充满激情，渴望：have a burning desirea great passion for句型变化 就句子而言，能够运用较复杂，且形式不同的句子结构来表达思想是一篇文章老练成熟的标志。而目前一般大学生写作中出现的普遍问题是句子结构单一。比如： English becomes mole importantAll of us know the factOur society is mole open to the worldBut it is difficult to learnI have learned English for seven yearsBut I still can not command it wellBecause English is different from ChineseAnd we havent an environment 整篇文章成了简单句的堆积。这种作文只能是中学生的英语水平，语法基本没问题，但句子支离破碎，语义缺少连贯，句型没有变化。请看修改过后的文章。 It is well known that English has become increasingly important，especially to a society more open to the outside world. It is difficult, however, to have a better command of it-although I have leaned English for 7 years-because of its complete difference from Chinese and of the lack of an English-speaking environment. 同样的意思，文章的质量就完全不一样：句型复杂有变化，语义连贯有层次。 再比较下面的句子，就会发现b句式不仅仅复杂，而且表达要生动、有力得多。1) a. Many liberal arts graduates are unwilling to accept work outside their major interest. If so they will have difficulty finding employment. b. Unless they are willing to accept work outside their major interests, many liberal arts graduates will have difficult finding employment.2) a. Tuition fees and room-and-board charges are all soaring, but getting their children into college continues to be the goal of millions of Chinese people. They think higher education will bring them a good job. b. Despite soaring tuition fees and room-and-board charges, getting their children into college continues to be the goal of millions of Chinese people who think higher education will bring them a good job.3) a. Teenagers are pressured by school work. They are encouraged by their peers and often resort to smoking l