英语教材 应用文体学-Chapter VII 文体学.ppt

,Chapter7CommonFiguresofSpeech(I),Wehavealreadylearntthebasicprinciplesofwordchoiceandsentenceconstruction-theessentialskillsintheuseofEnglish.Letsnowlookattheuseoffiguresofspeech,whichareregardedas“decorativedevices”intheuseofEnglish.However,weshouldnotunderstandthistoimplythattheiruseisrestrictedto“fancy”stylesofwritingorspeaking;someofthesefigurespervadevirtuallyeverystyleandregisterofthelanguage.,Figuresofspeechcomprisevarioususesoflanguagethatdepartfromthecustomary(or“unmarked)constructionorordersoastoachievespecialeffectsormeanings.HowmanyfiguresofspeecharethereinEnglish?Differentauthoritiesanddifferentbookswillgivedifferentanswerstothisquestion.Acommonlyagreedaverageis40,butsomeauthoritiesgohigherthan50.Nomatterhowmanythereare,theyarecommonlydividedintothreecategories:lexicalfiguresofspeech,syntacticalfiguresofspeechandphoneticfiguresofspeech.,Inthischapterweshalltalkaboutlexicalfiguresofspeech.I.LexicalFiguresofSpeech,1.Simile:anexplicitcomparisonmadebetweentwoormorethingsthatareunlikeinformbutthathavesomethingincommon;thesimilarityisexplicitlyexpressedornormallyintroducedbylikeoras.,Myheartislikeasingingbird.tenorindicator(linker)vehicleIwanderedlonelyasacloud.(WilliamWordsworth),Inthefirstexample,thesimilaritybetweentheheartandthesingingbirdisbasedonthefactthatbothseemhappy.Inthesecondexample,probablyoneofthebest-knownsimilesinEnglish,thecomparisonislessobviousuntilwenoticethatthesimileisextended;thenextlineis“Thatfloatsonhighoer(over)valesandhills”.Thecomparisonisthenbetweenthecloudandthepoet,walkingaloneinthehills.Stillwemightfeelthatthecomparisonisnotentirelyclear,butthatisthewayofpoetsexpressingsomething.,HesleptlikealogLookatthemoon.Howstrangethemoonseems:Sheislikeawomanrisingfromatomb.Sheislikeadeadwoman.(Wilde)Hestrutted(高视阔步),wavinghishandsasthoughhewerecommandinganarmy.(Walpole),Trueeaseinwritingcomesfromart,notchance,Asthosemoveeasiestwhohavelearnttodance.Peoplewhohavelearntdancingseemtomoveinanaturalandunself-consciousway;inthesameway,bylearningthenutsandboltsofwriting,youwillwriteinawaythatisbothgracefuland(seemingly)effortless.,Theinsideofmytentwascoatedinacuriousflaky(片状的)rime(白霜),whichIrealizedafteramomentwasallmynight-timesnores,condensedandfrozenandpassedtothefabric(织物),asifintoascrapbookofrespiratorymemories.,2.Metaphorisafigureofspeechcontaininganimpliedcomparisonbasedonassociationofsimilarity,inwhichawordorphraseordinarilyandprimarilyusedforonethingisappliedtoanother,aprocesswhichoftenresultsinsemanticchangeorfigurativeextensionofmeaning:aheartofstone,thunderousapplause.Acunningpersonisoftenreferredtoasafox;abeautifulwomanmaybedescribedasavision.Otherexamplesarearainofbullets,astormofprotests.Wecanseefromtheseexamplesthatasemanticchangehastakenplacewhenawordisusedmetaphorically:thewordnowmeanssomethingotherthanitsliteralmeaning.,Likesimiles,metaphorshaveatenorandavehicle;butunlikesimiles,metaphorsdonothaveanindicator(orlinker).Militarygloryisabubble(气泡)blownfromblood.AtlastIseethefruitofmylabor.Ihavefoundtherootofthetrouble.Lifeisadream.Theworldisastage.,Thesimilaritybetweentenorandvehiclemaybebasedonlikelinessinformorappearance,suchastheeyeofaneedle,theteethofacomb,thebridgeofapairofeyeglasses,theneckofabottle;oronaresemblanceinrelativeposition,asthefootofapage,thecrestofamountain,thesideofahill.Sometimestheresemblancemaybeinqualityorinfunction,suchasabookworm(apersondevotedtoreading),thehandofaclock,thekeytoamystery.,Wealsofindthattheforceofmetaphorisatworkinthefollowingexpressions:topumpsomeoneforinformation;tosqueezetherich;toeatoneswords(收回前言);toapethoseoneadmires;todogacriminal;timeflies;angerburns;thespringandautumnofoneslife;andtheappleofsomeoneseye.,Thereispsychologicalprocesswhichalsoproduceslinguisticresultssimilartothoseofmetaphor.Thisissynesthesiawhich“isbasedontranspositionfromonesensetoanother”,suchassoundtosightorfromtouchtosound.“whenwespeakofawarmoracoldvoice,wedosobecauseweperceivesomekindofsimilaritybetweenwarmorcoldtemperatureandthequalityofcertainvoices.”,Somesynestheticimagesaresowellestablishedthattheirsynestheticoriginiscompletelyforgotten.Todaywespeakofasoftvoice;asweetsmell;cold/chillylooks;awarmgaze;warm/coldcolors;lightmusic;atallstory;andawhitelie.Alltheaboveexamplesshowthatthesemanticrangeofwordsiswidenedasaresultoftheirbeingusedmetaphorically.Usuallyaliteralmeaningofawordremainsalongwithanewmetaphoricalone.,Allthesemetaphoricalusagesarisequitenaturally.Manywordshavebeenusedsofrequentlyasmetaphorsthattheirmetaphoricalsenseshavebecomewell-establishedinpeoplesminds.Theyarecalledfadedmetaphors;theyweremetaphorsoncebutarenolongerfeltassuch.Whenwespeakof“atthefootofthepage”,wedonotfeelthatwearecomparingafoottothebottomofapage.Thissenseoffootisjustoneofthiswordsmeanings,listedinanystandarddictionary.,Somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested.?,3.Metonymyisanimportantfactorinsemanticchangeordevelopment.Itisafigureofspeechbywhichanobjectorideaisdescribedbythenameofsomethingcloselyrelatedtoit.Thatistosay,atransferofnamesoccursbetweentwothingsassociatedbyactualcontinuity,eitherbyphysicalcontact,orcontactthroughvariousthoughtassociations.Hencemetonymydoesnotrevealanynewrelationsbutarisesbetweenwordsalreadyrelatedtoeachotherindifferentways,forexample,theWhiteHouseforthepresidentorforthepresidentialstaffoftheUnitedStates.Ineverydayspeechandwriting,however,itsusemustbeconfirmedbythemembersofagivenspeechcommunity.,Thecommoncategoriesofmetonymyareasfollows:,1)Signforthepersonorthingsignified:fromthecradletothegrave(frominfancytodeath);theCross(theChristianreligion)bloodshed(slaughter)crown,throne(king),2)Containerforitscontents;theplaceforthepeopleoccupyingit:thebottle(alcoholicdrink);wardrobe(apersonscollectionofclothes);thetown(thepeoplewholiveinatown),asin“Thewholetownwastalkingaboutit”,3)Theabstractfortheconcrete:abeauty(abeautifulwoman);theprideofouruniversity;authorityorauthorities(forapersonoragroupofpersonshavingpowerorrighttoenforceobedience);themanagement(governingbody,boardofdirectors,etc.);thepress(newspaperwritersingeneral).,4)Theconcretefortheabstract:name(reputation,asin“Therestauranthasanameforgoodserviceanddeliciousfood”);seat(itssenseisextendedtotherighttositasamemberoftheboardorespeciallytheHouseofCommons,asin“toloseonesseat”);thefloor(therightofonemembertospeak,asin“tohavethefloor”);brain(intellectualpower);ear(musicdiscrimination).,5)(synecdoche)Apartforthewholeorviceversa:asail(ship,asin“afleetof50sails);hand(manualworkerasin(Thefactoryemploystwohundredhands);thesmilingyearforthespring;acountryforateamordelegation,asin“ChinabeatJapanattabletennis.”,6)Thematerialforthethingmade:silverforcoinsmadeofsilver(asin“20poundsinnotesand3poundsinsilver”);nickelforaU.S.coinmadeofanalloyofnickelandcopperandequaltofivecents;plasticforanyarticlemadeofplastic;marbleforapieceofsculptureinmarble;nylonsforwomensnylonstockings;rubbersforovershoesmadeofrubber.,Inmostofthemetonymicexpressionslistedabove,theassociationshavebecomesocloseandsowell-establishedinpopularusagethatpeoplehavenodifficultyinunderstandingtheassociation.Whenwesay“PoorJohnisonthebottleagain”(PoorJohnisaddictedtoalcoholicliquoragain.),wedonotfeelthatwearespeakingofthecontainer(bottle)forthethingcontained(alcoholicliquor).Thisuseofbottleissimplyoneofthewordssensesthatcanbefoundinanystandarddictionary.,4.Personification:afigureofspeechgivinghumanqualitiesorabilitiestoabstractionsornon-humanentities:,Theroseblushesinthemorning.Miserylovescompany.(proverb)Thethirstysoildrankintherain.Thetownwasnotyetawake.Virtueandvicecannotdwellunderthesameroof.Fortunesmiledonourenterprise.,Deathisstillworkinglikeamole,Anddigsmygraveateachremove.(GeorgeHerbert)Thesunwaslaughingsweetly.(WBYeats)Lovelaughsatlocksmiths.,SeethemountainskisshighheavenAndthewavesclasp(扣紧)oneanother;Nosister-flowerwouldbeforgivenIfitdisdained(轻视)itsbrother;AndthesunlightclaspstheearthAndthemoonbeamskissthesea:WhatareallthesekissesworthIfthoukissnotme?(Shelley,LovesPhilosophy),5.Euphemism:Peoplehaveatendencytousemild,agreeablelanguagewhenspeakingofanunpleasantorembarrassingfact(suchasdeath,disease,unfortunateeventsorcrime),andoftaboosubjectssuchassexandtheexcretiveprocessesofthebody.Thistendencyleadstoeuphemisms.,Hencedeathandthingsrelatedtodeathareoneofthemostcommonobjectsofeuphemism.Wehavesucheuphemisticexpressionsinreferringtodeathas“topassaway”,“tobreatheoneslast”,“toceasetothink”,“tofallasleep”,“togowest”,“tokickthebucket”,“tobenomore”,“tobegatheredtoonesfathers”,“tojointhesilentmajority”,“tobegone”,“toyielduptheghost”,“togohence”,andmanyothers.,Aburialplace/graveyardiscommonlyknownasacemeterywhichisfromaGreekwordmeaning“sleepingplace”.Itisnowcalleda“memorialpark”/memorygardensometimes.Undertaker,whichoncemeant“onewhoundertakestodoaparticularjob”isknowntodayonlyasone“whosebusinessistocarryoutarrangementsforfunerals”andisnowbeingreplacedbymortician/funeraldirector.Casketisaeuphemisticexpressionforcoffin.,Psychologicalormentaldefects,badeconomicstate,unfortunateeventsandmoraldelinquencyhavealwaysbeentheobjectsofeuphemism.Diseasemeant“discomfort”whenitwasfirstborrowedfromOldFrench.Itwasusedasasubstitutefor“illness”,buthaslongsincelostitseuphemisticvalueanditsoriginalsignification.Insane(unhealthy)wasatfirstamilderformofmad,butisnowanestablishedwordformad.Anasylumormadhouseisnowadayscalledamentalhospital.,Oldpeoplehavebecomeseniorcitizens/maturepeople/pensioner/greyhair,forwhomthereareseniorcitizenbenefits,seniorcitizenfares,etc.Retardedchildrenhavebeenreplacedbyslowlearnersorunderachievers,crippledbyhandicapped,drunkardsbyalcoholics,Slumsby“substandarddwellings”/“unfithouses”.Poorpeopleinasocietyaresaidtobelongtothe“lowerincomebrackets”,ortheyaredescribedas“theunderprivileged”/“theneedy”/“thedisadvantaged”.,Casualty(Lchanceevent)andruin(Ltofall,hurltotheground)areeuphemisticinorigin,althoughtheyarenolongersoconsidered.Misconduct,misguided,andmisdemeanorareeuphemisticexpressionsformoraldelinquency.“Introuble”isappliedtoapersonwhoisaccusedofacrime/anunmarriedwomanorgirlwhoispregnant.Stealinghasgivenrisetosuchslangeuphemismsaspilfer,lift,nick,pinchandsnitch.,Itisageneralhumantendencytoavoidusing“dirtywords”whichusuallyrefertotaboosubjectssuchassexandexcretion,inpolitesociety.Hencefor“tourinate”therearemanyeuphemismssuchas“togotothetoilet”or“togotothebathroom/thelavatory”.(The)Ladies,(The)Gentlemen”sandrestroomallrefertowhatinordinarylanguageislavatory(itselforiginallyaeuphemismmeaning“washplace”).,“MayIusetherest-room?”“MayIwashmyhands?”“Commitnonuisance!”此处禁止大小便！Expectorateforspit吐痰.,Pregnant:expectant,laden,bigwithchild,heavywithchild,greatwithchild,inthefamilyway,inaninterestingcondition,introuble,expecting/anticipating.,InadvertisingAsymphonyofspeedandstyle:carComplimentarybreakfast:freebreakfastinahotelToterminatewithextremeprejudice:tomurder(CIA),Euphemismitselfdoesnotleadtoachangeofmeaning,butitoftenhappensthatthesubstitute-term,asintheaboveexamples,becomessopopularinreferencetotheunpleasantfactortaboosubjectthatitsoriginalsenseiscompletelyforgotten,anditcomesactuallytodenotewhatitwasintendedatfirsttoconceal.Thereforeeuphemismmayalsoberegardedasasourceofsemanticchange.,6.Antithesisischaracterizedbystronglycontrastingwords,clauses,sentencesorideas.Typically,onetermwillbebalancedagainstanotherinordertoachieveemphasisorimpressivenessoftone.,Thatsonesmallstepforaman,onegiantleapformankind.Thisstatementisprobablyoneofthemostfamousexamplesofantithesis.TheAmericanastronautNeilArmstrongsaiditwhenhewasthefirstmantostepontothemooninJuly1969.,Marriagehasmanypains,butcelibacy(独身生活)hasnopleasures.(SamuelJohnson),Itwasthebestoftimes,itwastheworstoftimes;itwastheageofwisdom,itwastheageoffoolishness;itwastheepochofbelief,itwastheepochofincredulity;itwastheseasonoflight,itwastheseasonofdarkness;itwasthespringofhope,itwasthewinterofdespair;wehadeverythingbeforeus,wehadnothingbeforeus;wewereallgoingdirecttoHeaven,wewereallgoingdirecttheotherway.(Dickens,ATaleofTwoCities),7.Pun:apunisaplayonwords,basedontheidentityorsimilaritybetweenthesoundsofwordswithdifferentmeanings.Themainuseofpunsistomakejokes.Abald(hairless)mandrewrabbitsonhishead.Hethoughtthatfromadistancetheymightlooklikehares/hairs.,StylisticValueofPolysemyandHomonymyContextplaysaveryimportantroleinthehearersinterpretationofwordsoftwospecialtypes:differentwordsoflikeform(homonymy)andwordsofseveralmeanings(polysemy).Suchwordsinthepropercontextnormallycausenoconfusion:,Hehelpedmanyyoungwriterstofindthemselvesandthentofindpublishers.Ifyoudonotlearnacraftwhenyouareyoung,youllhavetoearnyourlivingbycraftwhenyougrowup.“Illgiveyouaringforourengagement.”“Illappreciateit.”,tosanctionasanction（批准一项制裁）totable(搁置)atable,Whenambiguityarises,itisusuallyintentional,forpolysem