英语词汇学_Unit_06_Sense_relations

EnglishLexicologyUnit6,SenseRelations,Contents,Synonymy同义关系synonym同义词Antonymy反义关系antonym反义词Polysemy多义关系polyseme多义词Homonymy同音(同形)异义关系homonym同音同形异义词，homograph同形异义词，homophone同音异义词,Hyponymy上下义关系superordinate上义词,hyponym下义词Taxonymy分类关系superordinate上类词,taxonym分类词Meronymy部分整体关系superordinate总项词,meronym分项词,Synonymy,Synonymyisarelationshipofsamenessofmeaningthatmayholdbetweentwowords.Synonym:awordthatmeansthesameasanother.Linguistsmakeadistinctionbetweenstrictorabsolutesynonymyandlooseorrelativesynonymy.,Strictsynonymy,Strictsynonymsrefertotwowordswhichareidenticalinmeaninginallitsaspects.Theyareinterchangeableinallcontexts.Strictsynonymsareveryrare,andsomelinguistsevenarguethatstrictsynonymsdonotexist.Strictsynonymyisuneconomical;itcreatesunnecessaryredundancyinalanguage.,Loosesynonymy,Whenwespeakofsynonymy,wemeanlooseorrelativesynonymy,wherewefindnotonlyasignificantoverlapinmeaningbetweentwowords,butalsosomecontextswheretheycannotbeusedinterchangeably.Johnfound/discoveredthebasketballinthegrass.MariaCuriediscoveredradiumin1898.*MariaCuriefoundradiumin1898.,discover:bethefirstonetocomeacrosssomethingfind:experiencesomethinginsomeway,Distinguishingsynonyms,Weoftentakethefollowingthingsintoconsiderationwhenwetrytofindthedifferencesbetweensynonyms.DifferentEnglishdialectsDifferentstylisticmeaningsDifferentconnotativemeanings,Synonymsfromdifferentdialects,SomesynonympairsdifferinthattheybelongtodifferentdialectsofEnglish.HerearesomeexamplesofsynonymsfromBritishandAmericanEnglish:,Synonymswithdifferentstylisticmeanings,Oneofapairofsynonymsmaybeusedinamoreformalcontextthantheother.Herearesomeexamplesofsynonympairs.,Synonymswithdifferentconnotativemeanings,Synonymsmayhavedifferentemotiveassociations(connotativemeanings).,Sourceofsynonyms,WhyaretheresomanysynonymsinEnglish?Theprimaryreasonforthishastodowiththeheavyborrowingfromotherlanguages,especiallyfromFrenchandLatin.,Antonymy(反义关系),Antonymyisarelationshipofmeaningoppositionthatmayholdbetweentwowords.Antonymscanbedefinedaswordswhichareoppositeinmeaning.Majortypesofantonyms：GradableantonymsContradictoryorcomplementaryantonymsConverseantonyms,Gradableantonyms,Gradableantonymsincludepairslikethefollowing:beautifuluglyexpensivecheapfastslowhotcoldlongshortrichpoorwidenarrow,Thesepairsarecalledgradableantonymsbecausetheydonotrepresentamore/lessrelation.Thewordscanbetheend-pointsofacontinuum(连续体).Sincetheyaregradable,theyallowcomparison.,Contradictory(complementary)antonyms,Contradictoryantonymsincludepairslikethefollowing:asleepawakedeadaliveonoffrememberforgetwinlosetruefalse,Thesepairsarecalledcontradictoryantonymsbecausetheyrepresentaneither/orrelation.Ifyoupermitsomebehavior,thenitisnotforbidden.Sincetheyarenotgradable,theydonotallowcomparison.,Converseantonyms(逆行),Thefollowingareexamplesofconverseantonyms：lendborrowhusbandwifeabovebelowbeforeafterbehindinfrontofbuysellgivereceiveparentchildspeaklisten,Lendistheconverseofborrowandviceversa;i.e.thesubstitutionofonememberfortheotherdoesnotchangethemeaningofasentenceifitisaccompaniedbythechangeofsubjectandobject.,JohnlentMaryfivedollars.MaryborrowedfivedollarsfromJohn.,Thebridgeisabovetheriver.Theriverisbelowthebridge.Thisbehaviorisallowed.Thisbehaviorisnotprohibited.,Contradictoryantonymsvs.Converseantonyms,Converseantonymsarerelationalantonyms.,Contradictoryantonymsareeither/orantonyms.,Polysemy,Whenawordisfirstcoined,itisalwaysthecase(true)thatithasonlyonemeaning(monosemic).Butinthecourseofdevelopment,thesamesymbolmaybeusedtoexpressnewmeanings.Theresultispolysemy.Polysemyshowstheeconomyandefficiencyofhumanlanguages.,Twoprocessesleadingtopolysemy,Therearetwoimportantprocessesinthedevelopmentofmeaning:Radiation(发散)Concatenation(串联),Radiation,Radiationisaprocessinwhichtheprimarymeaningstandsinthecenter,andthederivedmeaningsradiatefromitineverydirectionlikerays.Allthederivedmeaningscanbetracedbacktotheprimarymeaning.,1,6,5,7,2,4,3,RadiationExample:face,thefrontofthehead(PrimaryMeaning),outwardappearance(DerivedMeaning),aperson(DerivedMeaning),self-respect(DerivedMeaning),thesurfaceofathing(DerivedMeaning),countenance(DerivedMeaning),Wecangetthederivedmeaningsbyextension,narrowing,analogy,transfer,etc.,Concatenation,Concatenationisaprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordmovesgraduallyfromitsprimarymeaningbysuccessiveshifts,likethelinksofachain,untilthereisnoconnectionbetweenthemeaningthatisfinallydevelopedandtheprimarymeaning.Unlikeradiationwhereeachofthederivedmeaningisdirectlyrelatedtotheprimarymeaning,concatenationisaprocesswhereeachofthelatermeaningisrelatedonlytotheprecedingone.,1,6,5,2,4,3,ConcatenationExample:candidate,AapersondressedinwhiteA+Bawhiterobedapplicantforoffice(becausetheRomansworewhiterobeswhenstandingforoffice)Bapersontakinganexamination,bridgingcontext,ThereisnoconnectionbetweenAandB,becausethemiddlelink(A+B)hasvanished.,TheprimarymeaningAhasalsovanished.Nowthederivedmeaninghasbecomethecentralmeaning.,Homonymy,Homonymyistherelationbetweentwowordsthatarespelledorpronouncedinthesamewaybutdifferinmeaning.Suchwordsarecalledhomonyms.lievi./lievi.-perfecthomonymstearn./tearvt.-homographscoarse/course-homophones,Perfecthomonyms,Perfecthomonyms:wordsidenticalinbothsoundandspelling,butdifferentinmeaningbank:n./bank:n.bear:n./bear:vt.,Homographs:wordsidenticalonlyinspellingbutdifferentinsoundandmeaning.bow:vi.tobendonesheadasagreetingbow:n.thedeviceusedforshootingarrowssow:n.femalepigsow:vi.toscatterseedsperfect:v./-/perfect:adj./-/,Homographs,Homophones:wordsidenticalonlyinsoundbutdifferentinspellingandmeaning.sun/sondeer/dearright/writepair/pearstationary/stationery,Homophones,Differentiationofperfecthomonymsfrompolysemouswords,differentlexemeswhichhavethesameform,thesamelexemewhichhasseveraldifferentmeanings,polysemouswords,perfecthomonyms,developedfromthesamesource,havingdifferentsources,Theuseofpolysemyandhomonymy,Polysemouswordsandhomonymsareoftenusedaspuns,toachievecertainliteraryeffect,suchashumor,irony,etc.LewisCarrollsAlicesAdventureinWonderland“Howisbreadmade?”“Iknowthat!”Alicecriedeagerly.“Youtakesomeflour.”“Wheredoyoupicktheflower?”theWhiteQueenasked.“Inagarden,orinthehedges?”“Well,itisntpickedatall,”Aliceexplained:“itsground.”“Howmanyacresofground?”saidtheWhiteQueen.,Hyponymy,Hyponymyisthesenserelationshipthatrelateswordshierarchically.Theunderlyingobservationisthatsomewordshaveamoregeneralmeaning,whileothershaveamorespecificmeaning,whilereferringtothesameentity.,FOOD,MEAT,Wearenotgoingtohaveanyfoodtoday.Wearenotgoingtohaveanyvegetablestoday.,VEGETABLE,MEAT,VEGETABLE,FRUIT,BEEF,PORK,MUTTON,CABBAGE,CELERY,SPINACH,APPLE,PEACH,ORANGE,superordinate,Theyaresubordinateterms.TheyarehyponymsofthesuperordinatetermFOOD.,FOOD,Readingfromthebottomofthehierarchy,ORANGEisakindoffruit,whichisakindoffood.,Theyaresubordinateterms.TheyarehyponymsofthesuperordinatetermMEAT.,Taxonymy,Taxonymyistherelationshipinwhich“XisakindofY”(Cruse1986).Notallhyponymsaregoodtaxonyms.Hyponymslargespoon,deepspoonarenot“akindofspoon”Taxonymsteaspoon,soupspoonare“akindofspoon”,Taxonymy-Focalorientation,Focalorientation:thisisaperspectivethatthetaxonymandsuperordinatetermmustsharesothattherelationshipworksAblondeisnotakindofwomanbecauseblondehasahaircolorfocalorientationthatwomanlacks.,Taxonymydistinctivefeature,Itappearsthatataxonymmustengagewiththemeaningofitssuperordinateinaparticularway,byfurtherspecifyingwhatisdistinctiveaboutit.(p.121)Astrawberryblondeisatypeofblonde.(Distinctivef.ofblonde:fairhair)?Ablondeisatypeofwoman.(Distinctivef.ofwoman:sex)?Astallionisatypeofhorse.(Distinctivef.ofstallion:sex),HierarchicalcharacteristicofTaxonymy,Pineisakindofconifer,whichisakindoftree,whichisakindofplant.,Hyponymy,Taxonymy,分类关系具有严格的层次性，一般不超过五层，每个层次的词项必须严格地遵守同一分类标准；而上下义关系中的词项虽然也能够划分层次，但没有严密的定义标准，对层次的数目也没有规定。,TaxonymyvsHyponymy,Meronymy,Differentfromthekind-ofrelationdisplayedbyhyponymy,meronymyinvolvespart-wholerelationbetweenwords.arm:bodywheel:car,Anarmispartofabody;Awheelispartofacar.,主攻Outsidehitters,二传Setters,接应Oppositehitters,自由人Liberos,排球队(volleyballteam),副攻Middlehitters,排球队员(volleyballplayer),Hyponymsof?【kind-of】,Meronymsof?【part-of】,Exercises,把下列各组同义词放入最合适的搭配中。1.Advance，promote,forward,further_themarriage;_apupiltothenextgrade_thespringcrops;_studentsinterests2.Ask,q