《新编简明英语语言学教程》PPT课件.ppt杨丽华

,Chapter6Pragmatics,-thestudyoflanguageinuseorlanguagecommunication;thestudyoftheuseofcontexttomakeinferenceaboutmeaning.-thestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.,Pragmatics,ThistermwasfirstproposedbyAmericanphilosophorCharlesWilliamsMorrisin1937.Thissubjectwasdevelopedquicklyin1960sand1970s.,SomebasicnotionsinPragmatics,Pragmaticsvs.semanticsContextSentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaningCorrectnessvs.appropriateness,Pragmaticsvs.semantics,Semantics-isthestudyoftheliteralmeaningofasentence(withouttakingcontextintoconsideration).Pragmatics-thestudyoftheintendedmeaningofaspeaker(takingcontextintoconsideration),e.g.“Mybirthdaypartywillbeheldtomorrownight”,semantically,itmeansthattomorrowIwillcelebratemybirthday;pragmatically,youcanmeanalotbysayingthis,alldependingonthecontextandtheintentionofthespeaker,say,makingainvitationorhopingtoreceiptgifts,ContextnotedbyBritishlinguistJohnFirth,Context-abasicconceptinthestudyofpragmatics.Itisgenerallyconsideredasconstitutedknowledgesharedbythespeakerandthehearer,suchasculturalbackground,situation(time,place,manner,etc.),therelationshipbetweenthespeakerandthehearer,etc.,Sentencemeaningvs.utterancemeaning,-Sentencemeaning:Abstractandcontext-independentmeaning;literalmeaningofasentence;-utterancemeaning:concreteandcontext-dependentmeaning;intendedmeaningofaspeaker;,“Ijustateonebowlofrice”,(sentencemeaning);anindirect,politerequest,askingthehearertobuysomecandiesorsnacksforher;thespeakerisexpressingherdesireforwhatshewantstoget.Note:Themeaningofanutteranceisbasedonthesentencemeaning;itistherealizationoftheabstractmeaningofasentenceinarealsituationofcommunication,orsimplyinacontext;utterancemeaningisricherthansentencemeaning;itisidenticalwiththepurposeforwhichthespeakeruttersthesentence.,Correctnessvs.appropriateness,*“Johnplaygolf”-grammaticallyincorrect;?“GolfplayedJohn”-logicallyincorrect;butitmightbeappropriatepragmaticallyincertaincontext.,Note:Pragmaticscanmakesenseoutofnonsense,givenasuitablecontext.Appropriatenessisveryimportantinlinguisticcommunication,especiallyincross-culturalcommunication.Ifyousaysomethinggrammaticallyincorrect,youareatworsecondemnedas“speakingbadly”,but,ifyousaysomethinginappropriately,youwillbejudgedas“behavingbadly”,suchasinsincere,untruthful,ordeceitful.(Thomas,1983),Speechacttheory,SpeechactsisatermderivedfromtheworkofthephilosopherJ.L.Austin(1962)andnowusedtorefertoatheorywhichanalyzestheroleofutterancesinrelationtothebehaviorofthespeakerandthehearerininterpersonalcommunication.Itaimstoanswerthequestion“Whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”,Twotypesofutterances,Constatives(叙述句)-statementsthateitherstateordescribe,andarethusverifiable;Performatives(施为句)-sentencesthatdonotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.Note:Sometimestheyareeasytogetconfused,e.g.“Itisrainingoutside”canbeaconstative,andalsoaperformative,forbyutteringsuchasentence,wemaynotonlystateafact,butinvolveintheactofinformingsomeoneabouttherain.,SomeExamplesofPerformatives,“Ido”“InamethisshipElizabeth.”“Igiveandbequeathmywatchtomybrother.”“Ibetyousixpenceitwillraintomorrow.”“Ideclarethemeetingopen.”,Austinsnewmodelofspeechacts,-AccordingtoAustinsnewmodel,aspeakermightbeperformingthreeactssimultaneouslywhenspeaking:locutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.Thelocutionaryact-anactofsayingsomething,i.e.anactofmakingameaningfulutterance(literalmeaningofanutterance);Theillocutionaryact-anactperformedinsayingsomething:insayingX,IwasdoingY(theintentionofthespeakerwhilespeaking).Theperlocutionaryact-anactperformedasaresultofsayingsomething:bysayingXanddoingY,IdidZ.,Forexample,“Itiscoldinhere.”,Itslocutionaryactisthesayingofitwithitsliteralmeaningtheweatherisclodinhere;Itsillocutionaryactcanbearequestoftheheartoshutthewindow;Itsperlocutionaryactcanbethehearersshuttingthewindoworhisrefusaltocomplywiththerequest.-Analyzeonemoreexample:“Youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.”Note:Ofthethreeacts,whatspeechacttheoryismostconcernedwithistheillocutionaryact.Itattemptstoaccountforthewaysbywhichspeakerscanmeanmorethanwhattheysay.,Analyzetheillocutionaryactsofthefollowingconversationbetweenacouple:-(thetelephonerings)-H:Thatthephone.(1)-W:Iminthebathroom.(2)-H:Okay.(3)Thisseeminglyincoherentconversationgoesonsuccessfullybecausethespeakersunderstandeachothersillocutionaryacts:(1)Makingarequestofhiswifetogoandanswerthephone.(2)Arefusaltocomplywiththerequest;issuingarequestofherhusbandtoanswerthephoneinstead.(3)Acceptingthewifesrefusalandacceptingherrequest,meaning“allright,Illanswerit.”,Searlesclassificationofspeechacts(1969),Assertives/representatives(陈述)Directives(指令)Commissives(承诺)Expressives(表达)Declarations(宣布),Assertives/representatives,-Statingordescribing,sayingwhatthespeakerbelievestobetrue,e.g.Ithinkthefilmismoving.ImcertainIhaveneverseenthemanbefore.Isolemnlyswearthathehadgotit.,Directives,-Tryingtogetthehearertodosomething,e.g.Iorderyoutoleaverightnow.Openthewindow,please.Yourmoneyoryourlife!,Commissives,-Committingthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction,e.g.Ipromisetocome.Iwillbringyouthebooktomorrowwithoutfail.,Expressives,-Expressingthespeakerspsychologicalstateaboutsomething,e.g.Imsorryforbeinglate.Iapologizeforthesufferingsthatthewarhascausedtoyourpeople.,Declarations,-Bringingaboutanimmediatechangeintheexistingstateoraffairs,e.g.Inowappointyouchairmanofthecommittee.Youarefired.Inowdeclarethemeetingopen.,Note:(1)Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurposebutdifferintheirstrengthorforce,e.g.Iguess/amsure/swearheisthemurderer.Note:(2)Inordertogetsomeoneopenthedoor,wecanchooseonefromavarietyoftheformsinbelow:Couldyouopenthedoor,please!Canyouopenthedoor!Doyoumindopeningthedoor?Openthedoor!Thedoorplease!,Principleofconversation(PaulGrice),Cooperativeprinciple(CP)-AccordingtoGrice,inmakingconversation,thereisageneralprinciplewhichallparticipantsareexpectedtoobserve.Itgoesasfollows:Makeyourconversationalcontributionsuchasrequiredatthestageatwhichitoccursbytheacceptedpurposeordirectionofthetalkexchangeinwhichyouareengaged.,FourmaximsofCP,Themaximofquality-Donotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalse.-Donotsaythatforwhichyoulackadequateevidence.Themaximofquantity-Makeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequiredforthecurrentpurposeoftheexchange.-Donotmakeyourcontributionmoreinformativethanisrequired.Themaximofrelation-Berelevant(makeyourcontributionrelevant).Themaximofmanner-Avoidobscurityofexpression.-Avoidambiguity.-Bebrief.-Beorderly.,Conversationalimplicature,Inrealcommunication,however,speakersdonotalwaysobservethesemaximsstrictly.Thesemaximscanbeviolatedforvariousreasons.Whenanyofthemaximsisblantantlyviolated,i.e.boththespeakerandthehearerareawareoftheviolation,ourlanguagebecomesindirect,thenconversationalimplicaturearises.,ViolationofMaximofquality,-A:Wouldyouliketogomoviewithmetonight?-B:Thefinalexamisapproaching.ImafraidIhavetoprepareforit.-A:wouldyouliketocometoourpartytonight?-B:ImafraidImnotfeelingsowelltonight.-A:WhowasthatladyIsawyouwithlastnight?-B:Thatwasnolady,thatwasmywife.,Violationofmaximofquantity,Atapartyayoungmanintroduceshimselfbysaying“ImRobertSampsonfromLeeds,28,unmarried”“Wariswar.”“Girlsaregirls.”-A:WhenisSusansfarewellparty?-B:Sometimenextmonth.,Violationofmaximofrelation,-A:Howdidthemathexamgotoday,Jonnie?-B:Wehadabasketballmatchwithclass2andwebeatthem.-A:Thehostessisanawfulbore.-B:Therosesinthegardenarebeautiful,arentthey?-A:Whattimeisit?-B:Thepostmanhasjustarrived.,Violationofmaximofmanner,-A:Shallwegetsomethingforthekids?-B:Yes.ButIvetoI-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.,Politenessprinciple(Leech),Morphologicalandsyntacticchange,Changein“agreement”ruleChangeinnegationruleProcessofsimplificationLossofinflections,Vocabularychange,AdditionofnewwordsLossofwordsChangesinthemeaningofwords,Additionofnewwords,coinage(创新词)clippedwords(缩略词)blending(紧缩法)acronyms(词首字母缩略词)back-formation(逆构词法)functionalshiftborrowing,Coinage,-Anewwordcanbecoinedoutrighttofitsomepurpose,e.g.walkmanKodakXeroxFordBenzToyota,Clippedwords,-Theabbreviationoflongerwordsorphrases,e.g.gymgymnasiummemomemorandumdiscodiscothequefridgerefrigerator,Blending,-Ablendisawordformedbycombiningpartsofotherwords,e.g.smogsmoke+fogmotelmotor+hotelcamcordercamera+recorder,Acronyms,-Acronymsarewordsderivedfromtheinitialsofseveralwords,e.g.CBS-ColumbiaBroadcastingsystemISBN-InternationalStandardBookNumberWTOWHOPLAAIDSUNESCOAPECOPECCADSARS,Back-formation,-Newwordsmaybecoinedfromalreadyexistingwordsby“subtracting”anaffixthoughttobepartoftheoldword.editeditorhawkhawkerbegbeggarbaby-sitbaby-sitter,Functionalshift,-Wordsmayshiftfromonepartofspeechtoanotherwithouttheadditionofaffixes,e.g.Nounverb:toknee,tobug,totape,tobrakeVerbnoun:ahold,aflyby,areject,aretreatAdj.verb:tocool,tonarrow,todim,toslowAdj.noun:adaily,aChristian,therich,theimpossible,Borrowing,-Whendifferentculturescomeintocontact,wordsareoftenborrowedfromonelanguagetoanother.ThefollowingaresomeoftheloanwordsinEnglish(seemoreinP100-101).LatinbonuseducationexitGermanbeerwaltzquartzChineseteakowtowsampanRussiansputnikcommissarvodkaArabiczeroalgebraalcohol,Lossofwords,Wordscanbelostfromalanguageastimegoesby.Thefollowingwords,takenfromRomeoandJuliet,havefadedoutoftheEnglishlanguage.BeseemtobesuitableWottoknowGyveafetterWhereforewhy,Changesinthemeaningofwords,WideningofmeaningNarrowingofmeaningMeaningshift,Wideningofmeaning,Holiday:+specificholyday+generalanyrestdayTail:+specifictailofahorse+generaltailofanyanimal,Narrowingofmeaning,hound:anydogaspecialkindofdoggirl:youngpersonofeithersexyoungpeopleoffemalesexdeer:anyanimalaparticularkindofanimalmeat:foodediblepartofananimalcorn:grainaparticulargrain,Meaningshift,inn:asmall,oldhotelorpubwell-known,nicehotelnice:ignorant(1000yearsago)good,finelust:pleasurewithnegativeandsexualovertonessilly:happynave,foolish,Somerecenttrends,MovingtowardsgreaterinformalityTheinfluenceofAmericanEnglishTheinfluenceofscienceandtechnology,Theinfluenceofscienceandtechnology,SpacetravelComputerandinternetlanguageEcology,Causesofthelanguagechange,Therapiddevelopmentofscienceandtechnology;Moreandmorewomenhavetakenupactivitiesformerlyreservedformen,moreneutraljobtitleshavebeencreated;“Economyofmemory”resultsingrammarsimplification;Regularizationofexceptionalpluralformsprovidesanotherexampleforanalogicalchange.,Chapter8Languageandsociety,Sociolinguistics-asub-fieldoflinguisticsthatstudiestherelationbetweenlanguageandsociety,betweentheusesoflanguageandthesocialstructuresinwhichtheusersoflanguagelive.,Therelatednessbetweenlanguageandsociety,-Therearemanyindicationsoftheinter-relationshipbetweenlanguageandsociety.Languageisoftenusedtoestablishandmaintainsocialrelationships.(e.g.greeting)Theuseoflanguageisinpartdeterminedbytheuserssocialbackground.(socialclass,age,sex,educationlevel,etc.)Language,reflectsboththephysicalandthesocialenvironmentsofasociety.(“snow”forEskimo)theevaluationofalinguisticformisentirelysocial(thepostvocalicr).,Speechcommunityandspeechvariety,Speechcommunity-thesocialgroupthatissingledoutforanyspecialsociolinguisticstudyiscalledthespeechcommunity.Speechvarietyorlanguagevariety-anydistinguishableformofspeechusedbyaspeakeroragroupofspeakers.Insociolinguisticstudythreetypesofspeechvarietyareofspecialinterest,i.e.regionaldialects,sociolectsandregisters.,Twoapproachestosociolinguisticstudies,Macrosociolinguistics,i.e.abirds-eyeviewofthelanguagesusedinsociety;Microsociolinguistics,i.e.aworms-eyeviewoflanguageinuse.,Varietiesoflanguage,DialectalvarietiesRegisterDegreeofformality,Dialectalvarieties,Regionaldialectisalinguisticvarietyusedbypeoplelivinginthesamegeographicalregion(e.g.Br.E.itismainlyspokenbyalessprivilegedpopulationthathasexperiencedsomeformofsocialisolationsuchasracialdiscriminationorsegregation(e.g.BlackEnglish).,Register,Register,inarestrictedsense,referstothevarietyoflanguagerelatedtoonesoccupation.Inabroadersense,accordingtoHalliday,“languagevariesasitsfunctionvaries;itdiffersindifferentsituations.”Thetypeoflanguagewhichisselectedasappropriatetothetypeofsituationisaregister.Hallidayfurtherdistinguishesthreesocialvariablesthatdeterminetheregister:fieldofdiscourse,tenorofdiscourse,modeofdiscourse.,Threesocialvariables,Fieldofdiscourse:whatisgoingon:totheareaofoperationofthelanguageactivity.Itisconcernedwiththepurpose(why)andsubjectmatter(aboutwhat)ofcommunication.Itcanbeeithertechnicalornon-technical.)Tenorofdiscourse:theroleofrelationshipinthesituationinquestion:whoaretheparticipantsinthecommunicationandinwhatrelationshiptheystandtoeachother.(customer-shop-assistant,teacher-student,etc.)Modeofdiscourse:themeansofcommunication.Itisconcernedwithhowcommunicationiscarriedout.(oral,written,ontheline),Degreeofformality,-Fivestagesofformality(MartinJoos)Intimate:Upyougo,chaps!Casual:Timeyouallwentupstairsnow.Consultative:Wouldyoumindgoingupstairsrightaway,please?Formal:Visitorsshouldgoupthestairsatonce.Frozen:Visitorswouldmaketheirwayatoncetotheupperfloorbywayofthestaircase.-Note:Differentstylesofthesamelanguagecanbecharacterizedthroughdifferencesatthreelevels:syntactic,lexicalandphonological(P121).,Standarddialect,Thestandardvarietyisasuperimposed,sociallyprestigiousdialectofalanguage.Itisthelanguageemployedbythegovernmentandthejudiciarysystem,usedbythemassmedia,andtaughtineducationalinstitutions,includingschoolsettingswherethelanguageistaughtasaforeignorsecondlanguage.,PidginandCreole,Apidginisaspeciallanguagevarietythatmixesorblendslanguagesanditisusedbypeoplewhospeakdifferentlanguagesforrestrictedpurposessuchastrading.Whenapidginhasbecometheprimarylanguageofaspeechcommunity,andisacquiredbythechildrenofthatspeechcommunityastheirnativelanguage,itissaidtohavebecomeaCreole.,BilingualismandDiglossia,Insomespeechcommunities,twolanguagesareusedsidebysidewitheachhavingadifferentroletoplay;andlanguageswitchingoccurswhenthesituationchanges.ThisconstitutesthesituationofBilingualism.AccordingtoFerguson(1959),diglossiareferstoasociolinguisticsituationsimilartobilingualism.Butinsteadoftwodifferentlanguages,inadiglossiasituationtwovarietiesofalanguageexistsidebysidethroughoutthecommunity,witheachhavingadefiniteroletoplay.,Chapter9Languageandculture,Whatisculture?,Inabroadsense,culturemeansthetotalwayoflifeofapeople,includingthepatternsofbelief,customs,objects,institutions,techniques,andlanguagethatcharacterizesthelifeofthehumancommunity.Inanarrowsense,culturemayrefertolocalorspecificpractice,beliefsorcustoms,whichcanbemostlyfoundinfolkculture,enterprisecultureorfoodculture,etc.Therearegenerallytwotypesofculture:materialandspiritual.,Therelationshipbetweenlanguageandculture,Thesamewordmaystirupdifferentassociationsinpeopleunderdifferentculturalbackground,e.g.theword“dog”.Languageexpressesculturalreality,reflectsthepeoplesattitudes,beliefs,worldoutlooks,etc.Theculturebothemancipatesandconstrainspeoplesocially,historicallyandmetaphorically.Culturealsoaffectsitspeoplesimaginationorcommondreamswhicharemediatedthroughthelanguageandreflectedintheirlife.Ontheonehand,languageasanintegralpartofhumanbeing,permeatesinhisthinkingandwayofviewingtheworld,languagebothexpressesandembodiesculturalreality;ontheother,language,asaproductofculture,helpsperpetuatetheculture,andthechangesinlanguageusesreflecttheculturalchangesinreturn.,Sapir-Whorfhypothesis,EdwardSapirandBenjaminWhorf,proclaimedthatthestructureofthelanguagepeoplehabituallyuseinfluencesthewaystheythinkandbehave,i.e.differentlanguagesofferpeopledifferentwaysofexpressingtheworldaround,theythinkandspeakdifferently,thisisalsoknownaslinguisticrelativity.SapirandWhorfbelievethatlanguagefilterspeoplesperceptionandthewaytheycategorizeexperiences.ThisinterdependenceoflanguageandthoughtisnowknownasSapir-WhorfHypothesis.,StrongversionWeakversionholdsthattheformerinfluencethelatter.-ThestudyofthelinguisticrelativityorSWHhasshedtwoimportantinsights:Thereisnowadaysarecognitionthatlanguage,ascode,reflectsculturalpreoccupationsandconstrainsthewaypeoplethink.MorethaninWhorfsdays,however,werecognizehowimportantcontextisincomplementingthemeaningsencodedinthelanguage.,Linguisticevidenceofculturaldifferences,Denotativemeaning-ameaningthatcanbefoundinadictionary.Connotativemeaning-ameaningorideasuggestedbyawordorthinginadditiontotheformalmeaningornatureofthewordorthing.Iconicmeaning-theimageoriconinvokedinmindbyaword.Forexample,“rose”.,Someculturaldifferencesinlanguageuse,GreetingsandtermsofaddressThanksandcomplimentsColorwordsPrivacyandtaboosRoundingoffnumbersWordsandcultural-specificconnotationsCultural-relatedidioms,proverbsandmetaphor,Thesignificanceofculturalteachingandlearning,Learningaforeignlanguageisinseparablefromlearningitsculture.Weneedtolearnenoughaboutthelanguagesculturesothatwecancommunicateinthetargetlanguageproperlytoachievenotonlythelinguisticcompetencebutalsothepragmaticorcommunicativecompetenceaswell.,Culturaloverlap,Culturaloverlapreferstotheidenticalpartofculturebetweentwosocietiesowingtosomesimilaritiesinthenaturalenvironmentandpsychologyofhumanbeings.Forexample,thesuperiortendstorefertohimselforherselfbymeansofkinshipterms,suchas“Havedaddy/mummy/teachertoldyouthat?”,Culturaldiffusion,Throughcommunication,someelementsofcultureAentercultureBandbecomepartofcultureB,thisphenomenonisknownasculturaldiffusion.Onetypicalexampleofculturaldiffusionistheappearanceofloanwords.Thepracticeofobservingholidaysofforeignoriginsandacceptingconceptsfromothercultures.Theattitudetowardsculturaldiffusion(esp.culturalimperialismowingtolinguisticimperialism),Interculturalcommunication,Interculturalorcross-culturalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweenpeoplefromdifferentcultures(theirculturalperceptionsandsymbolssystemsaredistinctenoughtoalterthecommunicationevent.)Incross-culturalcommunication,weneedtopayspecialattentiontothesignificantdifferencesregardingsocialrelationsandconceptofuniversefromdifferentperspectivessuchaslanguage,food,dress,attitudetowardstime,workhabits,socialbehaviorandreligious