introduction to critical thinking_14059：关键thinking_14059介绍

INTRODUCTIONTOCRITICALTHINKINGCRITICALTHINKINGHASBEENCALLEDONEOFTHEMOSTIMPORTANTATTRIBUTESFORSUCCESSINTHE21STCENTURYHUITT,1998MEYERS1986ARGUEDTHATFORSTUDENTSTOREACHTHEIRFULLESTPOTENTIALINTODAYSSOCIETY,THEYMUSTLEARNTOTHINKANDREASONCRITICALLYPAUL2002CONTENDEDTHAT“INAWORLDOFACCELERATINGCHANGE,INTENSIFYINGCOMPLEXITYANDINCREASINGINTERDEPENDENCE,CRITICALTHINKINGISNOWAREQUIREMENTFORECONOMICANDSOCIALSURVIVAL”CRITICALTHINKING,ACOMMONTERMINEDUCATIONAL,PSYCHOLOGICAL,ANDPHILOSOPHICALCIRCLES,HASBEENDEFINEDBYRESEARCHERSANDTHEORISTSASA“SETOFINTELLECTUALSTANDARDS”THATCANBEUSEDBYINDIVIDUALSWHILETHINKINGPAUL,1995CHAFEE1988DEFINEDCRITICALTHINKINGAS“OURACTIVE,PURPOSEFUL,ANDORGANIZEDEFFORTSTOMAKESENSEOFOURWORLDBYCAREFULLYEXAMININGOURTHINKING,ANDTHETHINKINGOFOTHERS,INORDERTOCLARIFYANDIMPROVEOURUNDERSTANDING“P29ACCORDINGTOHALPERN1989CRITICALTHINKINGIS“THINKINGTHATISPURPOSEFUL,REASONEDANDGOALDIRECTEDITISTHEKINDOFTHINKINGINVOLVEDINSOLVINGPROBLEMS,FORMULATINGINFERENCES,CALCULATINGLIKELIHOOD,ANDMAKINGDECISIONS“P5NORRISANDENNIS1989PROVIDEDONEOFTHESIMPLESTDEFINITIONSOFCRITICALTHINKINGTHEYDECLAREDTHATCRITICALTHINKINGISTHE“REASONABLEANDREFLECTIVETHINKINGTHATISFOCUSEDUPONDECIDINGWHATTOBELIEVEORDO“P18FACIONE1995HYPOTHESIZEDALINKBETWEENTHEDISPOSITIONTOTHINKCRITICALLYANDCRITICALTHINKINGSKILLSFACIONEHUITT1998ARGUEDTHATRATHERTHANASETOFGENERALIZEDSKILLS,CRITICALTHINKINGISAPROCESSTHATMAYBESTBEDEVELOPEDWHENSTUDENTSLEARNINCONNECTIONWITHASPECIFICDOMAINOFKNOWLEDGE,THROUGHWHICHTHEYCANCOMETOPURSUETHETHINKINGANDREASONINGPROCESSTOSOMEACTIONABLECONCLUSIONOROUTCOMECRITICALTHINKINGDEFINEDCRITICALTHINKINGDEFINITIONSRANGEFROMTHESIMPLETOTHECOMPLEXROBERTENNIS1991SIMPLYDEFINEDCRITICALTHINKINGAS,“REASONABLEANDREFLECTIVETHINKINGFOCUSEDONDECIDINGWHATTODOORBELIEVE“PAUL1995WROTETHATTHE“MASTEROFCRITICALTHINKING“USESASETOFINTELLECTUALSTANDARDSWHILETHINKINGTHESESTANDARDSGUIDETHETHINKINGPROCESSASWELLASHELPINDIVIDUALSHEIGHTENTHEIRABILITYTOTHINKCRITICALLYTHINKINGABOUTTHINKINGFORTHEPURPOSEOFIMPROVINGTHETHOUGHTPROCESSISATTHEHEARTOFCRITICALTHINKINGPAUL,1995HALPERN1996P5DEFINEDCRITICALTHINKINGAS“THEUSEOFCOGNITIVESKILLSORSTRATEGIESTHATINCREASETHEPROBABILITYOFADESIRABLEOUTCOME“OTHERDEFINITIONSINCLUDETHEFORMATIONOFLOGICALINFERENCESSIMON3DETERMININGFACTUALACCURACYOFASTATEMENT4DETERMININGCREDIBILITYOFASOURCE5IDENTIFYINGAMBIGUOUSCLAIMSORARGUMENTS6IDENTIFYINGUNSTATEDASSUMPTIONS7DETECTINGBIAS8IDENTIFYINGLOGICALFALLACIES9RECOGNIZINGLOGICALINCONSISTENCIESINALINEOFREASONING10DETERMININGTHESTRENGTHOFANARGUMENTORCLAIMINANEFFORTTOCLARIFYTHEPROCESSOFCRITICALTHINKING,PAUL1995WROTETHATCRITICALTHINKINGISAUNIQUEANDPURPOSEFULFORMOFTHINKINGTHATISPRACTICEDSYSTEMATICALLYANDPURPOSEFULLYTHETHINKERIMPOSESSTANDARDSANDCRITERIAONTHETHINKINGPROCESSANDUSESTHEMTOCONSTRUCTTHINKINGTABLE3SUMMARIZESPAULSOPERATIONALDEFINITIONOFCRITICALTHINKINGTABLE3WHATISCRITICALTHINKINGAUNIQUEKINDOFPURPOSEFULTHINKINGINWHICHTHETHINKERSYSTEMATICALLYANDHABITUALLYIMPOSESCRITERIAANDINTELLECTUALSTANDARDSUPONTHETHINKINGTAKINGCHARGEOFTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHINKINGGUIDINGTHECONSTRUCTIONOFTHETHINKINGACCORDINGTOTHESTANDARDSASSESSINGTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFTHETHINKINGACCORDINGTOTHEPURPOSE,CRITERIA,ANDSTANDARDSINANYSUBJECTAREAORTOPICWHETHERACADEMICORPRACTICAL,REQUIRINGINTELLECTUALTRAININGFORTHEMIND,AKINTOPHYSICALTRAININGFORTHEBODYACTIVELYDEVELOPSTRAITSSUCHASINTELLECTUALINTEGRITY,INTELLECTUALHUMILITY,FAIRMINDEDNESS,INTELLECTUALEMPATHY,ANDINTELLECTUALCOURAGEIDENTIFIESTHECRITERIAOFSOLIDREASONING,SUCHASPRECISION,RELEVANCE,DEPTH,ACCURACY,SUFFICIENCY,ANDESTABLISHESCLEARSTANDARDSBYWHICHTHEEFFECTIVENESSOFTHETHINKINGWILLBEASSESSEDAWARENESSOFELEMENTSOFTHOUGHTSUCHASASSUMPTIONSANDPOINTOFVIEWTHATAREPRESENTINALLWELLREASONEDTHINKING,ACONSCIOUS,ACTIVE,ANDDISCIPLINEDEFFORTTOADDRESSEACHELEMENTISDISPLAYEDCONTINUALLYASSESSINGTHECOURSEOFCONSTRUCTIONDURINGTHEPROCESSADJUSTING,ADAPTING,ANDIMPROVINGUSINGCRITERIAANDSTANDARDSDELIBERATELYASSESSINGTHETHINKINGTODETERMINEITSSTRENGTHSANDLIMITATIONSACCORDINGTOTHEDEFININGPURPOSE,CRITERIA,ANDSTANDARDSSTUDYINGTHEIMPLICATIONSFORFURTHERTHINKINGANDIMPROVEMENTDISPOSITIONSOFCRITICALTHINKINGDISPOSITIONSAREATTITUDINALINNATUREANDDEVELOPOVERTIMETHEYAREINFLUENCESBYSIGNIFICANTADULTS,PEERS,ANDENVIRONMENTALFACTORSDISPOSITIONSARESTRONGPRECURSORSOFCRITICALTHINKINGANDALTHOUGHTHEYCANBECHANGED,THEYCHANGESLOWLYOVERTIMEDISPOSITIONSARETHEGATEWAYTHROUGHWHICHONEALLOWSTHEMINDTOENGAGEINCRITICALTHINKINGACTIVITYWITH“LOWLEVEL“DISPOSITIONS,ONEWOULDBELESSLIKELYTOENTERTAINCOMPLEXQUESTIONS,LOOKFORMULTIPLESOLUTIONS,QUESTIONDECISIONS,ORSEEKSOLUTIONSTOMEANINGFULPROBLEMSFACIONE1990USEDTHEINFORMATIONFROMTHEDELPHISTUDYTOIDENTIFYSEVENDISPOSITIONSOFCRITICALTHINKINGTHESEDISPOSITIONSINCLUDEANALYTICITY,SELFCONFIDENCE,INQUISITIVENESS,MATURITY,OPENMINDEDNESS,SYSTEMATICITY,ANDTRUTHSEEKING,ASFOLLOWSANALYTICITYTARGETSTHEDISPOSITIONOFBEINGALERTTOPOTENTIALLYPROBLEMATICSITUATIONS,ANTICIPATINGPOSSIBLERESULTSORCONSEQUENCES,ANDPRIZINGTHEAPPLICATIONOFREASONANDTHEUSEOFEVIDENCE,EVENIFTHEPROBLEMATHANDTURNSOUTTOBECHALLENGINGORDIFFICULTTHEANALYTICALLYINCLINEDPERSONISALERTTOPOTENTIALDIFFICULTIES,EITHERCONCEPTUALORBEHAVIORAL,ANDCONSISTENTLYLOOKSTOANTICIPATORYINTERVENTION,REASONGIVING,ANDFACTFINDINGASEFFECTIVEWAYSTORESOLVEMATTERSSELFCONFIDENCEREFERSTOTHELEVELOFTRUSTONEPLACESINONESOWNREASONINGPROCESSCRITICALLYTHINKINGSELFCONFIDENTPERSONSTRUSTTHEMSELVESTOMAKEGOODJUDGMENTSANDBELIEVETHATOTHERSTRUSTTHEMASWELL,SINCETHEYBELIEVETHATOTHERSLOOKTOTHEMTORESOLVEPROBLEMS,DECIDEWHATTODO,ANDBRINGREASONABLECLOSURETOINQUIRYTHEINQUISITIVEPERSONISONEWHOVALUESBEINGWELLINFORMED,WANTSTOKNOWHOWTHINGSWORK,ANDVALUESLEARNINGEVENIFTHEIMMEDIATEPAYOFFISNOTDIRECTLYEVIDENTTHISPERSONSEEKSKNOWLEDGEWITHOUTPROVOCATIONFORTHEINTRINSICBENEFITOFKNOWINGMATURITYADDRESSESCOGNITIVEMATURITYANDEPISTEMICDEVELOPMENTMATURETHINKERSAREDISPOSEDTOAPPROACHPROBLEMS,INQUIRY,ANDDECISIONMAKINGWITHASENSETHATSOMEPROBLEMSAREILLSTRUCTURED,SOMESITUATIONSHAVEMORETHANONEPLAUSIBLEOPTIONMATURETHINKERSALSOREALIZETHATJUDGMENTSBASEDONSTANDARDS,CONTEXTS,ANDEVIDENCEOFTENMUSTBEMADEWITHOUTHAVINGTHEBENEFITOFKNOWINGALLINFORMATIONABOUTTHESITUATIONOPENMINDEDNESSISACONSTRUCTTHATTARGETSTHEDISPOSITIONOFBEINGTOLERANTOFDIVERGENTVIEWSWITHSENSITIVITYTOTHEPOSSIBILITYOFONESOWNBIASTHEOPENMINDEDPERSONRESPECTSTHERIGHTSOFOTHERSTODIFFERINGOPINIONSSYSTEMATICITYTARGETSTHEDISPOSITIONTOBEINGORGANIZED,ORDERLY,FOCUSED,ANDDILIGENTININQUIRYNOPARTICULARKINDOFORGANIZATIONIELINEARORNONLINEARISGIVENPRIORITYTHESYSTEMATICPERSONSTRIVESTOAPPROACHSPECIFICISSUES,QUESTIONSORPROBLEMSINANORDERLY,FOCUSED,ANDDILIGENTWAYTRUTHSEEKINGTHINKERSARETHOSEEAGERTOSEEKTHETRUTH,WHOARECOURAGEOUSABOUTASKINGQUESTIONS,ANDHONESTANDOBJECTIVEABOUTPURSUINGINQUIRYEVENIFTHEFINDINGSDONOTSUPPORTONESINTERESTSORONESPRECONCEIVEDOPINIONSTHETRUTHSEEKERWOULDRATHERPURSUETHETRUTHTHANWINTHEARGUMENTRUDD,MOORE,ANDPENFIELDINREVIEWCONDUCTEDAFACTORANALYSISOFTHECCTDIIN2002ANDDETERMINEDTHATTHECONSTRUCTSPROPOSEDBYFACIONEWERENOTREPRESENTEDINTHEANALYSISAFTERTHISSTUDYWITHOVER800SUBJECTSFAILEDTOPRODUCETHECONSTRUCTSPROPOSEDBYFACIONE,RESEARCHERSATTHEUNIVERSITYOFFLORIDABEGANTODEVELOPANINSTRUMENTTHATMOREACCURATELYMEASURECRITICALTHINKINGDISPOSITIONTHERESEARCHERSUTILIZEDTHE1990DELPHISTUDYANDSEARCHEDTHECRITICALTHINKINGLITERATURETOBUILDTHISNEWINSTRUMENTTHERESULTINGINSTRUMENT,THEEMI,WASDEVELOPEDANDSUBMITTEDTOPILOTTESTINGIN2003THEEMIREPRESENTSTHREECONSTRUCTSOFCRITICALTHINKINGDISPOSITIONTHESECONSTRUCTSWEREDERIVEDPRIMARILYFROMTHEWORKOFFACIONE,ETAL1990THERESEARCHERSUSEDTHEFACTORANALYSISDATAFROMTHECCTDISTUDYTOCONSTRUCTNEWINSTRUMENTATIONTHATREPRESENTEDTHREECONSTRUCTAREASTHECONSTRUCTSAREENGAGEMENT,COGNITIVEMATURITY,ANDINNOVATIVENESSAPERSONWITHAHIGHDISPOSITIONINENGAGEMENTWOULDBEABLETOANTICIPATESITUATIONSWHEREGOODREASONINGWILLBENECESSARYTOEMPLOYTHEYWOULDALSOLOOKFOROPPORTUNITIESTOUSETHEIRREASONINGSKILLANDBECONFIDENTINTHEIRABILITYTOREASON,SOLVEPROBLEMS,ANDMAKEDECISIONSTHISPERSONISALSOACONFIDENTCOMMUNICATORANDISABLETOEXPLAINTHEREASONINGPROCESSUSEDTOARRIVEATADECISIONORPROBLEMSOLUTIONTHECONSTRUCTOFENGAGEMENTISMEASUREDINTHEEMIBYTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSSDDUASAE2ILOOKFOROPPORTUNITIESTOSOLVEPROBLEMS12345E3IAMINTERESTEDINMANYISSUES12345E5IAMABLETORELATETOAWIDEVARIETYOFISSUES12345E7IENJOYFINDINGANSWERSTOCHALLENGINGQUESTIONS12345E8IAMAGOODPROBLEMSOLVER12345E9IAMCONFIDENTTHATICANREACHAREASONABLECONCLUSION12345E14IAMABLETOAPPLYMYKNOWLEDGETOAWIDEVARIETYOFISSUES12345E17IAMABLETOEXPLAINTHINGSCLEARLY12345E18IASKGOODQUESTIONSWHENTRYINGTOCLARIFYASOLUTION12345E19IPRESENTISSUESINACLEARANDPRECISEMANNER12345E22IKEEPONWORKINGONTHINGSUNTILIGETTHEMRIGHT12345ANINDIVIDUALWITHAHIGHLEVELOFCOGNITIVEMATURITYISAWAREOFTHEIROWNPREDISPOSITIONSANDBIASESINTHEDECISIONMAKINGPROCESSTHISPERSONISAWARETHATTHEYHOLDOPINIONSANDPOSITIONSTHATHAVEBEENINFLUENCEDBYWHOTHEYARE,THEIRENVIRONMENT,ANDEXPERIENCESTHISPERSONISAWARETHATOTHERSMAYORMAYNOTAGREEWITHTHEOPINIONSANDPOSITIONSTHEYHOLDTHEYAREOPENTOOPINIONSOFOTHERSANDTHEYTAKECARETOSEEKOUTDIVERGENTPOINTSOFVIEWANDCONSIDERTHEMOBJECTIVELYWHENMAKINGDECISIONSORARRIVINGATAPROBLEMSOLUTIONPEOPLEWITHHIGHLEVELSOFCOGNITIVEMATURITYKNOWTHATMOSTPROBLEMSAREMORECOMPLEXTHANTHEYAPPEARONTHESURFACEANDUNDERSTANDTHATRARELYISTHERE“ONERIGHTANSWER“TOPROBLEMSTHEYENCOUNTERTHECOGNITIVEMATURITYCONSTRUCTISMEASUREDWITHTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSSDDUASAM1ILISTENCAREFULLYTOTHEOPINIONSOFOTHERSEVENWHENTHEYDISAGREEWITHME12345M11IAMLIKELYTOCHANGEMYOPINIONWHENIAMGIVENNEWINFORMATIONTHATCONFLICTSWITHMYCURRENTOPINION12345M13ITRYTOCONSIDERTHEFACTSANDNOTLETMYBIASESAFFECTMYDECISIONS12345M16ICANGETALONGWITHPEOPLEWHODONOTSHAREMYOPINIONS12345M20ICONSIDERHOWMYOWNBIASESAFFECTMYOPINIONS12345M24ITRYTOFINDMULTIPLESOLUTIONSTOPROBLEMS12345M25IASKMANYQUESTIONSWHENMAKINGADECISION12345M26IBELIEVETHATMOSTPROBLEMSHAVEMORETHANONESOLUTION12345PEOPLEWHOHAVEAHIGHINNOVATIVENESSDISPOSITIONCOULDBEDESCRIBEDAS“HUNGRYLEARNERS“THEYARECONSISTENTLYLOOKINGFORNEWKNOWLEDGEINDIVIDUALSWHOPOSSESSAHIGHLEVELOFINNOVATIVENESSWHATTOKNOWMOREABOUTTHEIRPROFESSION,THEIRSITUATION,THEIRLIFE,ANDTHEIRWORLDAPERSONWITHHIGHINNOVATIVENESSISINTELLECTUALLYCURIOUSWITHNEWCHALLENGESANDACTIVELYSEEKSTOKNOWMORETHROUGHRESEARCH,READING,ANDQUESTIONINGTHISPERSONISALSOCHARACTERIZEDBYTHEIRDESIRETOKNOWTHETRUTH,EVENIFTHETRUTHCONFLICTSWITHPRESENTLYHELDBELIEFSANDOPINIONSTHEINNOVATIVENESSCONSTRUCTISMEASUREDBYTHEFOLLOWINGQUESTIONSSDDUASAI4IENJOYLEARNINGABOUTMANYTOPICS12345I6IASKLOTSOFQUESTIONSINALEARNINGENVIRONMENT12345I10ITISIMPORTANTTOBEWELLINFORMED12345I12IENJOYSOLVINGPROBLEMS12345I15IENJOYLEARNINGEVENWHENIAMNOTINSCHOOL12345I21ISEARCHFORTHETRUTHEVENWHENITMAKESMEUNCOMFORTABLE12345I23IWILLGOOUTOFMYWAYTOFINDTHERIGHTANSWERSTOAPROBLEM12345RELIABILITYESTIMATESFORTHETESTAREASFOLLOWSENGAGEMENTCOGNITIVEMATURITYINNOVATIVENESSOVERALLCONSENSUSLISTOFCTCOGNITIVESKILLSANDSUBSKILLSFACIONE1990SKILLSUBSKILLS1INTERPRETATIONCATEGORIZATIONDECODINGSIGNIFICANCECLARIFYINGMEANING2ANALYSISEXAMININGIDEASIDENTIFYINGARGUMENTSANALYZINGARGUMENTS3EVALUATIONASSESSINGCLAIMSASSESSINGARGUMENTS4INFERENCEQUERYINGEVIDENCECONJECTURINGALTERNATIVESDRAWINGCONCLUSIONS5EXPLANATIONSTATINGRESULTSJUSTIFYINGPROCEDURESPRESENTINGARGUMENTS6SELFREGULATIONSELFEXAMINATIONSELFCORRECTIONCONSENSUSDESCRIPTIONSCORECTSKILLSANDSUBSKILLS1INTERPRETATIONTOCOMPREHENDANDEXPRESSTHEMEANINGORSIGNIFICANCEOFAWIDEVARIETYOFEXPERIENCES,SITUATIONS,DATA,EVENTS,JUDGMENTS,CONVENTIONS,BELIEFS,RULES,PROCEDURESORCRITERIA11CATEGORIZATIONTOAPPREHENDORAPPROPRIATELYFORMULATECATEGORIES,DISTINCTIONS,ORFRAMEWORKSFORUNDERSTANDING,DESCRIBINGORCHARACTERIZINGINFORMATIONTODESCRIBEEXPERIENCES,SITUATIONS,BELIEFS,EVENTS,ETCSOTHATTHEYTAKEONCOMPREHENSIBLEMEANINGSINTERMSOFAPPROPRIATECATEGORIZATIONS,DISTINCTIONS,ORFRAMEWORKSFOREXAMPLETORECOGNIZEAPROBLEMANDDEFINEITSCHARACTERWITHOUTPREJUDICETOINQUIRYTODETERMINEAUSEFULWAYOFSORTINGANDSUBCLASSIFYINGINFORMATIONTOMAKEANUNDERSTANDABLEREPORTOFWHATONEEXPERIENCEDINAGIVENSITUATIONTOCLASSIFYDATA,FINDINGSOROPINIONSUSINGAGIVENCLASSIFICATIONSCHEMA12DECODINGSIGNIFICANCETODETECT,ATTENDTO,ANDDESCRIBETHEINFORMATIONALCONTENT,AFFECTIVEPURPORT,DIRECTIVEFUNCTIONS,INTENTIONS,MOTIVES,PURPOSES,SOCIALSIGNIFICANCE,VALUES,VIEWS,RULES,PROCEDURES,CRITERIA,ORINFERENTIALRELATIONSHIPSEXPRESSEDINCONVENTIONBASEDCOMMUNICATIONSYSTEMS,SUCHASINLANGUAGE,SOCIALBEHAVIORS,DRAWINGS,NUMBERS,GRAPHS,TABLES,CHARTS,SIGNSANDSYMBOLSFOREXAMPLETODETECTANDDESCRIBEAPERSONSPURPOSESINASKINGAGIVENQUESTIONTOAPPRECIATETHESIGNIFICANCEOFAPARTICULARFACIALEXPRESSIONORGESTUREUSEDINAGIVENSOCIALSITUATIONTODISCERNTHEUSEOFIRONYORRHETORICALQUESTIONSINDEBATETOINTERPRETTHEDATADISPLAYEDORPRESENTEDUSINGAPARTICULARFORMOFINSTRUMENTATION13CLARIFYINGMEANINGTOPARAPHRASEORMAKEEXPLICIT,THROUGHSTIPULATION,DESCRIPTION,ANALOGYORFIGURATIVEEXPRESSION,THECONTEXTUAL,CONVENTIONALORINTENDEDMEANINGSOFWORDS,IDEAS,CONCEPTS,STATEMENTS,BEHAVIORS,DRAWINGS,NUMBERS,SIGNS,CHARTS,GRAPHS,SYMBOLS,RULES,EVENTSORCEREMONIESTOUSESTIPULATION,DESCRIPTION,ANALOGYORFIGURATIVEEXPRESSIONTOREMOVECONFUSING,UNINTENDEDVAGUENESSORAMBIGUITY,ORTODESIGNAREASONABLEPROCEDUREFORSODOINGFOREXAMPLETORESTATEWHATAPERSONSAIDUSINGDIFFERENTWORDSOREXPRESSIONSWHILEPRESERVINGTHATPERSONSINTENDEDMEANINGSTOFINDANEXAMPLEWHICHHELPSEXPLAINITSOMETHINGTOSOMEONETODEVELOPADISTINCTIONWHICHMAKESCLEARACONCEPTUALDIFFERENCEORREMOVESATROUBLESOMEAMBIGUITY2ANALYSISTOIDENTIFYTHEINTENDEDANDACTUALINFERENTIALRELATIONSHIPSAMONGSTATEMENTS,QUESTIONS,CONCEPTS,DESCRIPTIONSOROTHERFORMSOFREPRESENTATIONINTENDEDTOEXPRESSBELIEFS,JUDGMENTS,EXPERIENCES,REASONS,INFORMATION,OROPINIONS21EXAMININGIDEASTODETERMINETHEROLEVARIOUSEXPRESSIONSPLAYORAREINTENDEDTOPLAYINTHECONTEXTOFARGUMENT,REASONINGORPERSUASIONTODEFINETERMSTOCOMPAREORCONTRASTIDEAS,CONCEPTS,ORSTATEMENTSTOIDENTIFYISSUESORPROBLEMSANDDETERMINETHEIRCOMPONENTPARTS,ANDALSOTOIDENTIFYTHECONCEPTUALRELATIONSHIPSOFTHOSEPARTSTOEACHOTHERANDTOTHEWHOLEFOREXAMPLETOIDENTIFYAPHRASEINTENDEDTOTRIGGERASYMPATHETICEMOTIONALRESPONSEWHICHMIGHTINDUCEANAUDIENCETOAGREEWITHANOPINIONTOEXAMINECLOSELYRELATEDPROPOSALSREGARDINGAGIVENPROBLEMANDTODETERMINETHEIRPOINTSOFSIMILARITYANDDIVERGENCEGIVENACOMPLICATEDASSIGNMENT,TODETERMINEHOWITMIGHTBEBROKENUPINTOSMALLER,MOREMANAGEABLETASKSTODEFINEANABSTRACTCONCEPT22DETECTINGARGUMENTSGIVENASETOFSTATEMENTS,DESCRIPTIONS,QUESTIONSORGRAPHICREPRESENTATIONS,TODETERMINEWHETHERORNOTTHESETEXPRESSES,ORISINTENDEDTOEXPRESS,AREASONORREASONSINSUPPORTOFORCONTESTINGSOMECLAIM,OPINIONORPOINTOFVIEWFOREXAMPLE,GIVENAPARAGRAPH,DETERMINEWHETHERASTANDARDREADINGOFTHATPARAGRAPHINTHECONTEXTOFHOWANDWHEREITISPUBLISHED,WOULDSUGGESTTHATITPRESENTSACLAIMASWELLASAREASONORREASONSINSUPPORTOFTHATCLAIMGIVENAPASSAGEFROMANEWSPAPEREDITORIAL,DETERMINEIFTHEAUTHOROFTHATPASSAGEINTENDEDITASANEXPRESSIONOFREASONSFORORAGAINSTAGIVENCLAIMOROPINIONGIVENACOMMERCIALANNOUNCEMENT,IDENTIFYANYCLAIMSBEINGADVANCEDALONGWITHTHEREASONSPRESENTEDINTHEIRSUPPORT23ANALYZINGARGUMENTSGIVENTHEEXPRESSIONOFAREASONORREASONSINTENDEDTOSUPPORTORCONTESTSOMECLAIM,OPINIONORPOINTOFVIEW,TOIDENTIFYANDDIFFERENTIATEATHEINTENDEDMAINCONCLUSION,BTHEPREMISESANDREASONSADVANCEDINSUPPORTACHEMAINCONCLUSION,CFURTHERPREMISESANDREASONSADVANCEDABACKUPORSUPPORTFORTHOSEPREMISESANDREASONSINTENDEDASSUPPORTINGTHEMAINCONCLUSION,DADDITIONALUNEXPRESSEDELEMENTSOFTHATREASONING,SUCHASINTERMEDIARYCONCLUSIONS,UNSTATEDASSUMPTIONSORPRESUPPOSITIONS,ETHEOVERALLSTRUCTUREOFTHEARGUMENTORINTENDEDCHAINOFREASONING,ANDFANYITEMSCONTAINEDINTHEBODYOFEXPRESSIONSBEINGEXAMINEDWHICHARENOTINTENDEDTOBETAKENASPARTOFTHEREASONINGBEINGEXPRESSEDORITSINTENDEDBACKGROUNDFOREXAMPLEGIVENABRIEFARGUMENT,PARAGRAPHSIZEDARGUMENT,ORAPOSITIONPAPERONACONTROVERSIALSOCIALISSUE,TOIDENTIFYTHEAUTHORSCHIEFCLAIM,THEREASONSANDPREMISESTHEAUTHORADVANCESONBEHALFOFTHATCLAIM,THEBACKGROUNDINFORMATIONUSEDTOSUPPORTTHOSEREASONSORPREMISES,ANDCRUCIALASSUMPTIONSIMPLICITINTHEAUTHORSREASONINGGIVENSEVERALREASONSORCHAINSOFREASONSINSUPPORTOFAPARTICULARCLAIM,TODEVELOPAGRAPHICREPRESENTATIONWHICHUSEFULLYCHARACTERIZESTHEINFERENTIALFLOWOFTHATREASONING3EVALUATIONTOASSESSTHECREDIBILITYOFSTATEMENTSOROTHERREPRESENTATIONSWHICHAREACCOUNTSORDESCRIPTIONSOFAPERSONSPERCEPTION,EXPERIENCE,SITUATION,JUDGMENT,BELIEF,OROPINIONANDTOASSESSTHELOGICALSTRENGTHOFTHEACTUALORINTENDINFERENTIALRELATIONSHIPSAMONGSTATEMENTS,DESCRIPTIONS,QUESTIONSOROTHERFORMSOFREPRESENTATION31ASSESSINGCLAIMSTORECOGNIZETHEFACTORSRELEVANTTOASSESSINGTHEDEGREEOFCREDIBILITYTOASCRIBETOASOURCEOFINFORMATIONOROPINIONTOASSESSTHECONTEXTUALRELEVANCEOFQUESTIONS,INFORMATION,PRINCIPLES,RULESORPROCEDURALDIRECTIONSTOASSESSTHEACCEPTABILITY,THELEVELOFCONFIDENCETOPLACEINTHEPROBABILITYORTRUTHOFANYGIVENREPRESENTATIONOFANEXPERIENCE,SITUATION,JUDGMENT,BELIEFOROPINIONFOREXAMPLETORECOGNIZETHEFACTORSWHICHMAKEAPERSONACREDIBLEWITNESSREGARDINGAGIVENEVENTORCREDIBLEAUTHORITYONAGIVENTOPICTODETERMINEIFAGIVENPRINCIPLEOFCONDUCTISAPPLICABLETODECIDINGWHATTODOINAGIVENSITUATIONTODETERMINEIFAGIVENCLAIMISLIKELYTOBETRUEORFALSEBASEDONWHATONEKNOWSORCANREASONABLYFINDOUT32ASSESSINGARGUMENTSTOJUDGEWHETHERTHEASSUMEDACCEPTABILITYOFTHEPREMISESOFAGIVENARGUMENTJUSTIFYONESACCEPTINGASTRUEDEDUCTIVELYCERTAIN,ORVERYPROBABLYTRUEINDUCTIVELYJUSTIFIED,THEEXPRESSEDCONCLUSIONOFTHATARGUMENTTOANTICIPATEORTORAISEQUESTIONSOROBJECTIONS,ANDTOASSESSWHETHERTHESEPOINTTOSIGNIFICANTWEAKNESSINTHEARGUMENTBEINGEVALUATEDTODETERMINEWHETHERANARGUMENTRELIESONFALSEORDOUBTFULASSUMPTIONSORPRESUPPOSITIONSANDTHENTODETERMINEHOWCRUCIALLYTHESEAFFECTITSSTRENGTHTOJUDGEBETWEENREASONABLEANDFALLACIOUSINFERENCESTOJUDGETHEPROBATIVESTRENGTHOFANARGUMENTSPREMISESANDASSUMPTIONSWITHAVIEWTOWARDDETERMININGTHEACCEPTABILITYOFTHEARGUMENTTODETERMINEANDJUDGETHEPROBATIVESTRENGTHOFANARGUMENTSINTENDEDORUNINTENDEDCONSEQUENCESWITHAVIEWTOWARDJUDGINGTHEACCEPTABILITYOFTHEARGUMENTTODETERMINETHEEXTENTTOWHICHPOSSIBLEADDITIONALINFORMATIONMIGHTSTRENGTHENORWEAKENANARGUMENTFOREXAMPLEGIVENANARGUMENTTOJUDGEIFITSCONCLUSIONFOLLOWSEITHERWITHCERTAINTYORWITHAHIGHLEVELOFCONFIDENCEFROMITSPREMISESTOCHECKFORIDENTIFIABLEFORMALANDINFORMALFALLACIESGIVENANOBJECTIONTOANARGUMENTTOEVALUATETHELOGICALFORCEOFTHATOBJECTIONTOEVALUATETHEQUALITYANDAPPLICABILITYOFANALOGICALARGUMENTSTOJUDGETHELOGICALSTRENGTHOFARGUMENTSBASEDONHYPOTHETICALSITUATIONSORCAUSALREASONINGTOJUDGEIFAGIVENARGUMENTISRELEVANTORAPPLICABLEORHASIMPLICATIONSFORTHESITUATIONATHANDTODETERMINEHOWPOSSIBLENEWDATAMIGHTLEADLOGICALLYTOTHEFURTHERCONFIRMATIONORDISCONFIRMATIONOFAGIVENOPINION4INFE