高中课本中出现的生物史（biological history in high school textbooks）

高中课本中出现的生物史（BIOLOGICALHISTORYINHIGHSCHOOLTEXTBOOKS）PREREQUISITEONETHEESTABLISHMENTOFCELLTHEORYINVOLVESSEVERALIMPORTANTSCIENTISTS1HOOKEENGLISH,CELLDISCOVERER,ANDNAMEMAKERIN1665,HEOBSERVEDPLANTCORKTISSUEUSINGAMICROSCOPE,THATCONSISTSOFMANYRULESOFTHECHAMBER,ANDTHE“CHAMBER“CALLEDCELLCELL2LEEUWENHOEKDUTCH,HEUSEDASELFMADEMICROSCOPETOOBSERVE,REDCELLSANDANIMALSPERMAREDESCRIBEDACCURATELY3,1830S,THEGERMANBOTANISTSCHLEIDENMJSEHLEIDEN,18O41881ANDZOOLOGISTSCHWANNTSCHWANN,18101882PUTFORWARDTHETHEORYOFCELL,CELLISTHEBASICUNITOFALLANIMALSTHATPLANTSTRUCTURE4,VILSHAWRLCVIRCHOWGERMAN,HESUMMEDUPONTHEBASISOFPREVIOUSRESEARCH,“CELLSPRODUCENEWCELLSTHROUGHDIVISION“SCIENTISTSINVOLVEDINBIOFILMFLOWMOSAICMODELS5,OVENDENEOVERTONHEHADTHEPERMEABILITYOF500KINDSOFCHEMICALSUBSTANCESINPLANTCELLSTOTENSOFTHOUSANDSOFTESTSIN1895,FOUNDTHATTHECELLMEMBRANEISNOTTHESAMEFORDIFFERENTMATERIALPERMEABILITYANYTHINGTHATCANDISSOLVEINTHELIPIDMATERIAL,ISNOTSOLUBLEINLIPIDSUBSTANCESMOREEASILYTHROUGHTHECELLMEMBRANEINTOTHECELLSOHEPUTFORWARDTHEHYPOTHESISTHATTHEMEMBRANEISCOMPOSEDOFLIPIDS6,ROBERTSONJDROBERTSONIN1959HESAWTHEMEMBRANECLEARDARKBRIGHTDARKTHREELAYERSTRUCTUREINTHEELECTRONMICROSCOPE,COMBINEDWITHOTHERSCIENTISTSWORK,PUTFORWARDTHEBIOFILMSTRUCTURE“UNITMEMBRANEMODEL7,SANGERS,J,SINGERANDNICKERSONBASEDONTHE“UNITMEMBRANE“MODEL,AFLOWMOSAICMODELISPROPOSED“EMPHASISISPLACEDONTHEFLUIDITYOFMEMBRANESANDTHEASYMMETRYOFMEMBRANEPROTEINDISTRIBUTIONACCEPTEDBYMOSTPEOPLEASCIENTISTCONCERNEDWITHTHEDISCOVERYOFENZYMES8,SPARLANDZAGREB,ITALIANPHYSIOLOGISTIN1783,HEDEMONSTRATEDTHATGASTRICJUICEHASACHEMICALDIGESTIVEFUNCTIONPASTEURFRENCHMICROBIOLOGIST,CHEMIST,PUTINFERMENTEDWINEISDUETOTHEEXISTENCEOFYEAST,NOLIVINGCELLSINVOLVED,CARBOHYDRATESAREUNLIKELYTOBECOMEALCOHOL9GERMANCHEMISTLIEBIGANYSUBSTANCEFOUNDINYEASTCELLSTHATCAUSESFERMENTATION,BUTTHESESUBSTANCESCANONLYFUNCTIONWHENYEASTCELLSDIEANDLYSE10BUCHNERGERMANCHEMISTHEOBTAINEDTHEEXTRACTCONTAININGENZYMESFROMYEASTCELLSANDSUCCESSFULLYFERMENTEDALCOHOLWITHTHISEXTRACT11SUMNERAMERICANCHEMISTIN1926,HEEXTRACTEDTHECRYSTALLIZATIONOFUREASEFROMBEANSEEDSANDPROVEDUREASETOBEAPROTEININAVARIETYOFWAYSWONTHENOBELPRIZEFORCHEMISTRYIN194612AND1980S,AMERICANSCIENTISTSCECHANDALTMANFOUNDTHATASMALLNUMBEROFRNAALSOHAVEBIOLOGICALCATALYSISSCIENTISTSINVOLVEDINTHEDISCOVERYOFPHOTOSYNTHESISIN13AND1771,BRITISHSCIENTISTPRIESTLEYFOUNDTHATPLANTSCOULDREFRESHTHEAIRTHROUGHEXPERIMENTSIN14AND1864,SAX,AGERMANSCIENTIST,PROVEDTHATPHOTOSYNTHESISPRODUCEDSTARCHIN15AND1880,ENGELMANN,ANAMERICANSCIENTIST,DEMONSTRATEDTHATCHLOROPLASTSARETHESITEOFPHOTOSYNTHESISINPLANTSIN16ANDTWENTIETHCENTURY30S,AMERICANSCIENTISTSLUBINSRUBENANDCARMENMKAMENUSEDISOTOPELABELINGTODEMONSTRATETHATALLOXYGENRELEASEDFROMPHOTOSYNTHESISCOMESFROMWATER17,CALVINMCALVIN,1911AMERICAN,BIOCHEMIST,PLANTPHYSIOLOGISTIN1940S,HEANDCOLLABORATORSBEGANUSINGRADIOACTIVEISOTOPELABELINGMETHODOFPHOTOSYNTHESIS,AFTER9YEARSOFRESEARCHABOUTTHEFINALPROVENCO2INTHEWAYOFORGANICCARBONINTOCARBONINPHOTOSYNTHESIS,THISWAYISCALLEDTHECALVINCYCLEREQUIREDTWOSCIENTISTSINGENETICS18MENDELAUSTRIAN,FOUNDEROFGENETICSHECONDUCTEDTHEPEAHYBRIDEXPERIMENTFOR8YEARS,ANDDISCOVEREDTHELAWSOFBIOLOGICALINHERITANCEBYANALYZINGTHERESULTSOFEXPERIMENTSIN1866,HEPUBLISHEDHISBOOK“PLANTHYBRIDIZATIONEXPERIMENTS“,WHICHPROPOSEDTHESEPARATIONLAWOFGENETICS,THELAWOFFREECOMBINATIONANDTHETHEORYOFGENETICFACTORS19JOHNSONDANISH,BOTANISTIN1909,HERENAMEDMENDELSGENETICFACTOR“GENE“ANDPUTFORWARDTHECONCEPTOFPHENOTYPEANDGENOTYPE20WEISMANNGERMANZOOLOGISTHEPREDICTEDAMEIOTICPROCESSINSPERMANDEGGMATURATION,WHICHWASLATERCONFIRMEDBYMICROSCOPICOBSERVATIONSBYOTHERSCIENTISTS21,SUTTONAMERICAN,CELLSCIENTISTIN1903,HEFOUNDINTHESTUDYOFSEPARATIONANDMEIOTICGENETICFACTORHYPOTHESISOFMENDELSPLITINHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESAREVERYSIMILAR,ANDTHUSPUTSFORWARDAGENETICFACTORGENELOCATEDONCHROMOSOMETHEORY22,MORGANAMERICANGENETICIST,EMBRYOLOGISTHEDIDALOTOFEXPERIMENTSWITHFRUITFLIES,ANDDISCOVEREDTHELAWSOFLINKAGEBETWEENGENES,WHICHARECALLEDTHETHIRDLAWSOFGENETICSHEALSODEMONSTRATEDTHATGENESWEREARRANGEDLINEARLYONCHROMOSOMES,LAYINGTHEFOUNDATIONFORMODERNGENETICS23ANDEIGHTEENTHCENTURY,THEFAMOUSBRITISHCHEMISTANDPHYSICISTDALTON,FIRSTFOUNDCOLORBLINDNESS,BUTALSOTHEFIRSTDISCOVEREDCOLORBLINDNESSPATIENTS1DNAISTHEMAJORGENETICMATERIAL24AND1928,THEBRITISHSCIENTISTGRIFFITHFGRIFITH,18771941,THROUGHEXPERIMENTSTOINFERTHATTHEALREADYKILLEDSBACTERIACONTAINSSOMEKINDOF“TRANSFORMINGFACTOR“,SOTHATTYPERBACTERIAINTOTYPESBACTERIAIN25AND1944,AMERICANSCIENTISTAVERYOAVERY,18771955ANDHISCOLLEAGUESDEMONSTRATEDTHATTHECONVERSIONFACTORWASDNA,THATISTOSAY,DNAISAGENETICSUBSTANCEIN26AND1952,HERSHEYAHERSHEYANDZEISSMCHASE,THROUGHPHAGEINFECTIONEXPERIMENTS,SHOWEDTHATINPHAGE,THECONTINUOUSSUBSTANCEBETWEENPARENTSANDOFFSPRINGISDNA,NOTPROTEIN2THESTRUCTUREANDREPLICATIONOFDNAMOLECULESIN27AND1953,AMERICANSCIENTISTWATSONANDBRITISHSCIENTISTCRICKPROPOSEDTHEDOUBLEHELIXSTRUCTUREMODELOFDNAMOLECULEIN1957CRICKPUTFORWARDTHECENTRALDOGMA28,MATTHEWANDMATTHEWSUCCESSFULLYDECIPHEREDTHEFIRSTGENETICCODEBREEDING29,YUANLONGPING,HEISTHEFOUNDEROFCHINESEHYBRIDRICERESEARCH,THEWORLDSFIRSTSUCCESSFULUSEOFRICEHETEROSIS,KNOWNASTHEFATHEROFHYBRIDRICE“EVOLUTION30,LAMARCKJBLAMARK,17441829FRENCHNATURALIST,PIONEEROFEVOLUTIONTHETHEORYOFBIOLOGICALEVOLUTIONWASFIRSTPROPOSED,SUGGESTINGTHATORGANISMSAREEVOLVING,ANDTHATBIOLOGICALEVOLUTIONISDUETOINHERITANCE,INHERITANCE,ANDINHERITANCE31,DARWINCRDARWIN,18091882BRITISHNATURALIST,ISTHEFOUNDEROFTHETHEORYOFEVOLUTIONIN1859,HEPUBLISHEDTHESCIENTIFICMASTERPIECE“THEORIGINOFSPECIES“,WHICHFULLYDEMONSTRATEDTHEEVOLUTIONOFBIOLOGY,ANDEXPLICITLYPROPOSEDTHETHEORYOFNATURALSELECTIONTOEXPLAINTHEEVOLUTIONARYMECHANISMHISINFLUENCEOFEVOLUTIONWASFARBEYONDTHESCOPEOFBIOLOGY,WHICHBROUGHTAFATALBLOWTOCREATIONISMANDTHETHEORYOFSPECIESINVARIANCE,ANDPROVIDEDAPOWERFULWEAPONFORTHEDIALECTICALMATERIALISTOUTLOOKONTHEWORLDREQUIREDTHREEINTERNALENVIRONMENTANDHOMEOSTASIS32,BERNARDCBERNARD,18131878FRENCH,IN1857,HEPROPOSEDTHECONCEPTOF“INTERNALENVIRONMENT“,ANDSPECULATEDTHATTHECONSTANTINTERNALENVIRONMENT,MAINLYDEPENDENTONTHEREGULATIONOFTHENERVOUSSYSTEM33,BUCHANANWBCANNON,18711945AMERICANPHYSIOLOGISTIN1926,HEPROPOSEDTHECONCEPTOF“STEADYSTATE“,ANDPUTSFORWARDTHECLASSICALINTERPRETATIONMECHANISMTOMAINTAINSTEADYSTATEHOMEOSTASISISACOMMONREGULATORYMECHANISMONNEURALREGULATIONANDHUMORAL,ANDTHROUGHTHEBODYINVARIOUSORGANSANDSYSTEMSDIVISION,UNIFIEDCOORDINATION34,ITISGENERALLYACCEPTEDTHATTHENERVE,HUMORAL,IMMUNEREGULATIONNETWORKISTHEMAINREGULATINGMECHANISMFORTHEORGANISMTOMAINTAINHOMEOSTASISREGULATIONOFANIMALHORMONES35VOTEMAFRENCHPHYSIOLOGISTHEFOUNDTHROUGHEXPERIMENTS,THEDOGTOTHEUPPERINTESTINENERVE,LEAVINGONLYTHEBLOODVESSELS,INJECTEDINTOTHESMALLINTESTINEWITHDILUTEHYDROCHLORICACID,CANPROMOTEPANCREATICSECRETIONBUTHEWASCONFINEDTOCONCLUSIONS,THISISBECAUSETHETINYNERVEINTHESMALLINTESTINEISDIFFICULTTOCLEAN36,DRLINENGLISH,PHYSIOLOGISTIN1902,HEANDBAYLESSDISCOVEREDTHESECRETINMATERIALPROMPTEDPANCREATICSECRETIONOFFLUIDFROMTHEINTESTINALMUCOSAIN1905,THEYPUTFORWARDTHENAMEHORMONEANDPUTFORWARDTHECONCEPTTHATHORMONESPLAYTHEROLEOFCHEMICALMESSENGERSINTHEBLOOD37BAYLESSENGLISH,PHYSIOLOGISTIN1902,HEANDSTALINDISCOVEREDTHESECRETINMATERIALPROMPTEDPANCREATICSECRETIONOFFLUIDFROMTHEINTESTINALMUCOSAIN1905,THEYPUTFORWARDTHENAMEHORMONEANDPUTFORWARDTHECONCEPTTHATHORMONESPLAYTHEROLEOFCHEMICALMESSENGERSINTHEBLOOD38PAVLOVRUSSIANPHYSIOLOGIST,FOUNDEROFMODERNDIGESTIVEPHYSIOLOGY1891BEGANTHESTUDYOFDIGESTIVEPHYSIOLOGY,IN“HAYDENHINESMALLSTOMACH“BASIS,HEMADETHERESERVATIONTHEINNERVATIONOFTHE“PAVLOVLITTLESTOMACH“,ANDCREATEDASERIESOFMETHODSOFEXPERIMENTALCHRONICDIGESTIVEPHYSIOLOGY,REVEALSSOMEBASICRULESOFDIGESTIVESYSTEMACTIVITIESTOTHISEND,HEWASAWARDEDTHENOBELPRIZEFORPHYSIOLOGYORMEDICINEIN1904INTHEEARLYTWENTIETHCENTURY,HISRESEARCHSHIFTEDTOHIGHERNEUROLOGICALACTIVITYANDESTABLISHEDTHETHEORYOFCONDITIONEDREFLEXTHEDISCOVERYPROCESSOFAUXININ39AND1880,DARWINEXPERIMENTALLYCONCLUDEDTHATTHETIPOFTHECOLEOPTILEMAYPRODUCEASUBSTANCETHAT,UNDERTHEACTIONOFSINGLELIGHT,HASANINFLUENCEONTHEPARTBELOWTHECOLEOPTILE40,JANSENBJENSENDANISH,PLANTPHYSIOLOGISTIN1910,HEPROVEDTHROUGHEXPERIMENTSTHATTHESTIMULATIONPRODUCEDBYTHETOPOFTHECOLEOPTILECANPASSTOTHELOWERPARTTHROUGHAGAR41,BAYERPAALHUNGARIAN,PLANTPHYSIOLOGISTIN1914,HEPROVEDTHROUGHEXPERIMENTSTHATTHEGROWTHOFCOLEOPTILEWASCAUSEDBYUNEVENDISTRIBUTIONOFTHESTIMULIPRODUCEDBYTHETIP42,WINTERFWWENT,1903DUTCHAMERICAN,PLANTPHYSIOLOGISTIN1928,HEPROVEDEXPERIMENTALLYTHATTHECURVATUREOFTHECOLEOPTILEWASACHEMICALTHATHETHOUGHTMIGHTBEASUBSTANCESIMILARTOANIMALHORMONESANDNAMEDTHESUBSTANCEAUXININ43AND1934,HOLLANDSCIENTISTSGUOGEFKOANDOTHERSEXTRACTEDINDOLEACETICACIDAUXINPOPULATIONANDECOSYSTEM44,GAUSSGWGAUSEECOLOGISTHEFOUNDTHATTHESCURVEOFPARAMECIUMPOPULATIONGROWTHTHROUGHEXPERIMENT45,LINDIGMANNRLLINDEMAN,19151942AMERICANECOLOGISTHETHROUGHQUANTITATIVEANALYSISOFENERGYFLOWOFARELATIVELYSIMPLESTRUCTUREOFTHENATURALLAKE,BERGLAKEOFSAIDA,FOUNDTHATTHEENERGY