人教版生物必修二知识点总结（human teaching edition biological compulsory two knowledge points summary）

人教版生物必修二知识点总结（HUMANTEACHINGEDITIONBIOLOGICALCOMPULSORYTWOKNOWLEDGEPOINTSSUMMARY）ZHENGZHOUCLASS1106SINGINGITHEBASICLAWOFHEREDITY1THELAWOFSEGREGATIONOFGENESTHEADVANTAGESOFPEAASAMATERIAL1PEACANBESTRICTLYSELFPOLLINATED,ANDITISCLOSEDPOLLINATEDANDCANMAINTAINPUREBREEDUNDERNATURALCONDITIONS2VARIETIESHAVEDISTINGUISHABLECHARACTERSTHEARTIFICIALHYBRIDIZATIONTESTPROCESSLEFTPISTILS,EMASCULATIONBAGGINGANTIINTERFERENCE,ARTIFICIALPOLLINATIONTHEGENETICPHENOMENONOFAPAIROFRELATIVECHARACTERSAPAIROFHOMOZYGOUSPARENTSWITHAPAIROFRELATIVECHARACTERSCROSSED,ANDTHEOFFSPRINGSHOWEDAKINDOFEXPRESSIONTHECHARACTERSOFF1ANDF2GENERATIONSWERESEPARATED,ANDTHESEPARATIONRATIOWAS31THEESSENCEOFTHELAWOFGENESEGREGATIONINHETEROZYGOUSCELLS,ALLELESLOCATEDONAPAIROFHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESHAVECERTAININDEPENDENCE,WHENTHEORGANISMISINMEIOSIS,ALLELESARESEPARATEDBYHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMES,RESPECTIVELYINTWOGAMETES,INDEPENDENTLYTRANSMITTEDTOTHEOFFSPRINGASGAMETES2THELAWOFFREECOMBINATIONOFGENESTHEGENETICPHENOMENONOFTWOPAIRSOFRELATIVECHARACTERSCONTROLLEDBYTWOALLELESHYBRIDIZATIONOFHOMOZYGOUSPARENTSWITHTWOPAIRSOFRELATIVECHARACTERSAFTERGENERATIONOFF1SELFING,OFFSPRINGAPPEAREDINFOURPHENOTYPES,WITHARATIOOF9331EACHOFTHEFOURPHENOTYPESISPUREZYGOTEACCOUNTEDFOR1/16INTHETWOGENERATIONS,ACCOUNTINGFOR4/16THEPROPORTIONOFDOMINANTINDIVIDUALSACCOUNTEDFOR9/16THEPROPORTIONOFDOUBLERECESSIVEINDIVIDUALSACCOUNTEDFOR1/16THESINGLEHETEROZYGOTEACCOUNTEDFOR2/1648/16THEDOUBLEHETEROZYGOTEACCOUNTEDFOR4/16THEPARENTTYPEPROPORTIONACCOUNTEDFOR9/16AND1/16THEPROPORTIONOFRECOMBINANTTYPESEACHACCOUNTEDFOR3/16,3/16THEESSENCEOFTHELAWOFFREECOMBINATIONOFGENESTHESEPARATIONORCOMBINATIONOFNONALLELICGENESLOCATEDONNONHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESISNOTMUTUALLYEXCLUSIVEINTERFERINGINMEIOSIS,GAMETESAREFORMEDONTHEHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESANDSEPARATEDFROMEACHOTHERATTHESAMETIMEAFREECOMBINATIONOFNONALLELICALLELESONTHESOURCECHROMOSOMEUSINGTHEPRINCIPLEOFFREECOMBINATIONOFGENESTOCULTIVATENEWVARIETIESGOODCHARACTERSAREINDIFFERENTVARIETIES,THEBESTVARIETIESWEREOBTAINEDBYCROSSBREEDINGFIRST,SELECTINGTHEONESTHATMETTHEREQUIREMENTS,ANDTHENCARRYINGOUTCONTINUOUSSELFPOLLINATIONMEMORYPOINT1GENESEGREGATIONLAWAPAIROFRELATIVECHARACTERSOFTWOBIOLOGICALPUREHYBRIDS,THEOFFSPRINGONLYSHOWDOMINANTCHARACTERSTRAITSEGREGATIONAPPEAREDINTHETWOOFFSPRING,ANDTHERATIOOFDOMINANTCHARACTERSTORECESSIVECHARACTERSWASCLOSETO31THEESSENCEOFTHE2GENESEGREGATIONLAWISTHATINAHETEROZYGOUSCELL,APAIROFHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESISFOUNDTOBEINDEPENDENT,INMEIOSIS,GAMETESARESEPARATEDANDSEPARATEDINTOTWOGAMETES,INDEPENDENTLYTRANSMITTEDTOOFFSPRINGBYGAMETES3GENOTYPEISTHEMEMORYFACTOROFTRAITEXPRESSION,WHILEPHENOTYPEISTHEFORMOFGENOTYPEPHENOTYPEGENOTYPEENVIRONMENTCONDITIONTHESUBSTANCEOFTHE4GENECOMBINATIONLAWISTHATTHESEPARATIONORCOMBINATIONOFNONALLELICGENESLOCATEDONNONHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESISNOTMUTUALLYEXCLUSIVEDISTURBEDINMEIOSIS,GAMETESAREFORMEDONTHEHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESANDSEPARATEDFROMEACHOTHERATTHESAMETIMEACOMBINATIONOFNONALLELICALLELESONCHROMOSOMESWITHINTHERANGEOFTHELAWSOFTHEFREECOMBINATIONOFGENES,INDIVIDUALSWITHTHENALLELETHEGAMETESPRODUCEDMAYHAVEATMOST2NSPECIESTWO,CELLPROLIFERATION1CELLCYCLEACONTINUOUSDIVISIONOFCELLS,STARTINGFROMTHECOMPLETIONOFADIVISION,UNTILTHENEXTDIVISIONISCOMPLETE2MITOSISTHEBIGGESTFEATUREOFINTERPHASEISTHEREPLICATIONOFDNAMOLECULESANDTHESYNTHESISOFPROTEINSTHEMAINCHANGESOFCHROMOSOMESINPROPHASEAREPROPHASE,METAPHASE,DIVISIONANDANAPHASEESPECIALLYNOTETHEDOUBLINGOFCHROMOSOMENUMBERSATANAPHASEDUETOMITOTICDIVISIONTHEDIFFERENCEOFMITOSISBETWEENANIMALSANDPLANTSTHEFORMATIONOFSPINDLEINAISDIFFERENTTHEMODEOFCYTOKINESISISDIFFERENTATTHEENDOFB3MEIOSISOBJECTSEXUALLYTRANSMITTEDORGANISMSPERIODPRIMORDIALGERMCELLSFORMMATUREGERMCELLSFEATURESCHROMOSOMESAREDUPLICATEDONLYONCE,ANDCELLSDIVIDETWOTIMESCONTINUOUSLYRESULTSTHENUMBEROFCHROMOSOMESINTHENEWLYCREATEDGERMCELLSWASREDUCEDBYHALFTHANTHATOFTHEORIGINALGERMCELLSMAJORCHANGESINCHROMOSOMESDURINGSPERMANDEGGFORMATIONMEIOSIS,FIRSTINTERPHASE,CHROMOSOMEREPLICATION,PROPHASEHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESFORMFOURBODIESOFTENCROSSCROSSINGBETWEENNONSISTERCHROMOSOMES,ANDMETAPHASECHROMOSOMESAREHOMOLOGOUSONTHEEQUATORIALPLATE,THELATTERCHROMOSOMESARESEPARATEDATTHESAMETIME,WHILETHENONHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESAREFREETHESECONDPROPHASEOFMEIOSISISSTAINEDTHEBODYISRANDOMLYDISTRIBUTEDINTHECELL,THECENTROMEREOFTHEMETAPHASECHROMOSOMEISARRANGEDONTHEEQUATORIALPLATE,ANDTHECENTROMEREOFTHELATERCHROMOSOMEISDIVIDEDANDDYEDSEPARATIONOFMONOMERICBODIESIDENTIFICATIONOFTHEPATTERNSOFMITOSISANDMEIOSISINTHECASEOFDIPLOIDORGANISMSTHEREARENOHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESIN1CELLSMEIOSISSECONDDIVISION2HAVINGHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMES,FORMINGFOURBODIES,ARRANGEDONANEQUATORIALPLATE,ORSEPARATINGFROMEACHOTHERMEIOTICFIRSTDIVISION3HOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESDONOTHAVETHESEPARTICULARBEHAVIORSMITOSISMEMORYPOINTTHERESULTOF1MEIOTICDIVISIONISTHATTHENUMBEROFCHROMOSOMESINTHENEWLYCREATEDGERMCELLSISLESSTHANHALFTHATOFTHEORIGINALREPRODUCTIVECELLDURINGMEIOSIS2,HOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESINTHEASSOCIATIONARESEPARATEDFROMEACHOTHER,INDICATINGTHATCHROMOSOMESAREINDEPENDENTOFEACHOTHERTWOHOMOLOGOUSWHENTHECHROMOSOMEMOVESTOWARDWHICHPOLEISRANDOM,DIFFERENTPAIRSOFCHROMOSOMESNONHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESCANBEFREELYCOMBINED3THEHALVINGOFTHENUMBEROFCHROMOSOMESINMEIOSISOCCURSINTHEFIRSTDIVISIONOFMEIOSIS4ASPERMATOGONIAUNDERGOESMEIOSISTOFORMFOURSPERMCELLS,ANDSPERMCELLSUNDERGOCOMPLEXCHANGESTOFORMSPERM5ANEGGCELLUNDERGOESMEIOSIS,FORMINGONLYONEEGGCELL6FORSEXUALLYTRANSMITTEDORGANISMS,MEIOSISANDFERTILIZATIONARENECESSARYFORTHEMAINTENANCEOFEACHORGANISMSPRECURSORCELLSTHECONSTANCYOFTHENUMBEROFCHROMOSOMESISIMPORTANTFORBIOLOGICALINHERITANCEANDVARIATIONTHREE、SEXDETERMINATIONANDSEXLINKEDINHERITANCE1XYTYPEOFSEXDETERMINATIONTHEFEMALEHASAPAIROFIDENTICALSEXCHROMOSOMESXX,ANDTHEMALEHASAPAIRAHETEROMORPHICSEXCHROMOSOMEXYMEIOSISPRODUCESSPERMATOZOATHATPRODUCESPERMCONTAININGTHEXCHROMOSOMEANDCONTAINYSTAININGSOMATICSPERMTHEFEMALEPRODUCEDONLYONEEGGCELLCONTAININGTHEXCHROMOSOMEFERTILIZATIONOCCURSWHENXSPERMATOZOAANDYSPERMATOZOAAREASSOCIATEDWITHTHECHANCESOFEGGCELLBINDINGAREEQUAL,SOTHECHANCESOFMALEANDFEMALEBIRTHSAREEQUAL,WITHARATIOOF112RECESSIVEINHERITANCEOFXSUCHASCOLORBLINDNESS,HEMOPHILIA,DROSOPHILAWINK,FEMALE,LEAFSHAPE,ETCMALEPATIENTSAREMORETHANFEMALEPATIENTSITBELONGSTOTHECROSSIEGRANDPAGENETICATAVISM,DAUGHTERANDGRANDSONFEMALEPATIENTSWHOSEFATHERSANDSONSAREPATIENTSMALESSUFFERFROMILLNESS,ANDTHEIRMOTHERSANDFEMALESAREATLEASTCARRIERS3RECESSIVEINHERITANCEONTHEXCHROMOSOMEEG,RESISTANCETOVDRICKETS,PENDULUMNYSTAGMUSFEMALEPATIENTSAREMORETHANMALEPATIENTSCONTINUOUSGENERATIONAMALEPATIENTWHOSEMOTHERANDDAUGHTERMUSTBEAPATIENT4GENETICINHERITANCEONTHEYCHROMOSOMEEG,EXTERNALAUDITORYCANALHIRSUTISMFATHERTOSON,PATHOGENICGENESTOCHILDRENANDGRANDCHILDREN,WITHSUCCESSIVEGENERATIONS,ALSOKNOWNASHOLANDRIC5THERELATIONSHIPBETWEENSEXUALINHERITANCEANDTHELAWOFSEGREGATIONOFGENESGENESASSOCIATEDWITHSEX,SEXCHROMOSOMES,ANDSEXCHROMOSOMESAPAIROFHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMES,THESEXLINKEDINHERITANCE,INESSENCE,CONFORMSTOTHELAWOFGENESEGREGATIONMEMORYPOINT1CHROMOSOMESINLIVINGCELLSCANBEDIVIDEDINTOTWOGROUPSCHROMOSOMESANDSEXCHROMOSOMESTHEREARETWOMAINWAYSOFDETERMININGSEXONEISXY,THEOTHERISZW2CHARACTERISTICSOFSEXUALINHERITANCE1THECHARACTERISTICSOFXWITHAUTOSOMALRECESSIVEMALEPATIENTSTHANFEMALEPATIENTSWITHATAVISMDUETOTHEDISEASEGENEISONTHEXCHROMOSOME,WHICHISUSUALLYPASSEDTHROUGHTHEDAUGHTERTOTHEGRANDCHILDTHEFATHERANDTHESONOFTHEFEMALEPATIENTMUSTBESUFFERINGCONVERSELY,THEMALEPATIENTMUSTHAVEBEENTRANSMITTEDTOTHECAUSATIVEGENEBYHISMOTHER2XCHROMOSOMEDOMINANTINHERITANCEFEATURESFEMALEPATIENTSAREMORETHANMALEPATIENTS,MOSTOFWHOMHAVECONTINUOUSGENERATION,THATIS,FROMGENERATIONTOGENERATIONTHEREAREPATIENTS,MALEPATIENTS,MOTHERSANDDAUGHTERSMUSTBEPATIENTS3GENETICCHARACTERISTICSASSOCIATEDWITHYCHROMOSOMEALLPATIENTSAREMALETHECAUSATIVEGENE,FATHER,SON,ANDOFFSPRINGXIANXIONGGENETICFOURTHENATUREOFGENES1DNAISTHEMAJORGENETICMATERIALBIOLOGICALGENETICMATERIALINTHEWHOLEBIOLOGICALWORLD,THEVASTMAJORITYOFORGANISMSAREUSINGDNAASGENETICMATERIALDNABIOLOGICALCELLULARSTRUCTURESOFBIOLOGICALANDDNAVIRUSES,DNAISGENETICMATERIALONLYASMALLNUMBEROFVIRUSESSUCHASAIDSTHEREISNODNA,ONLYRNA,ANDRNAISGENETICMATERIAL,SUCHASVIRUSES,SARSVIRUSES,AVIANINFLUENZAVIRUSES,ETCPROVETHEEXPERIMENTALDESIGNIDEATHATDNAISAGENETICSUBSTANCETRYTOSEPARATEDNAFROMPROTEIN,INDIVIDUALLYANDDIRECTLYTOOBSERVETHEROLEOFDNA2THESTRUCTUREANDREPLICATIONOFDNAMOLECULESSTRUCTUREOFDNAMOLECULETHEBASICUNITOFADEOXYNUCLEOTIDESCONSISTINGOFPHOSPHORICACID,DEOXYRIBOSE,ANDBASESBLONGCHAINOFNUCLEOTIDESPOLYMERIZEDBYACERTAINORDEROFDEOXYNUCLEOTIDESCPLANESTRUCTUREDSPATIALSTRUCTUREREGULARDOUBLEHELIXSTRUCTUREESTRUCTUREFEATURESDIVERSITY,SPECIFICITYANDSTABILITYREPLICATIONOFDNAATIMEMITOTICINTERVALORTHEFIRSTDIVISIONOFMEIOSISBFEATURESEDGERESOLUTION,EDGEREPLICATION,HALFPRESERVINGREPLICATIONCCONDITIONSTEMPLATESTWOSTRANDSOFDNAMOLECULES,RAWMATERIALSFOURFREEDEOXYNUCLEOTIDES,ENZYMESHELICASE,DNAPOLYMERASE,DNALIGASE,ETC,ENERGYATPDRESULTTHEDNAMOLECULE,LIKETEMPLATEDNA,WASGENERATEDBYREPLICATIONEMEANINGTHEINHERITANCEOFGENETICINFORMATIONTOTHEOFFSPRINGBYREPLICATIONKEEPSTHECONTINUITYOFGENETICINFORMATION3THESTRUCTUREANDEXPRESSIONOFGENESTHECONCEPTOFGENESGENESAREDNAMOLECULARFRAGMENTSWITHGENETICEFFECTS,ANDGENESAREARRANGEDLINEARLYINCHROMOSOMESTHEPROCESSOFPROTEINSYNTHESISBYGENECONTROLTRANSCRIPTIONTHEFORMATIONOFMESSENGERRNABYTHEPAIRINGOFBASESWITHTHETEMPLATEOFONESTRANDOFDNAINTHERIBOSOME,MESSENGERRNAISUSEDASATEMPLATETOTRANSPORTRNAASAVEHICLEFORTHESYNTHESISOFCERTAINAMINOACIDSORDEREDPROTEINMOLECULESMEMORYPOINT1DNAISASUBSTANCETHATPRODUCESSTABLEGENETICCHANGESINTYPERBACTERIA,ANDTHEVARIOUSTRAITSOFBACTERIOPHAGESARETRANSMITTEDTHROUGHDNATHETWOEXPERIMENTSSHOWEDTHATDNAISAGENETICMATERIAL2THEGENETICMATERIALOFALLLIVINGTHINGSISNUCLEICACIDTHECELLCONTAINSBOTHDNAANDRNAANDCONTAINSONLYDNABIOLOGICALINHERITANCETHEQUALITYISDNA,ANDTHEGENETICMATERIALOFASMALLNUMBEROFVIRUSESISRNASINCETHEVASTMAJORITYOFBIOLOGICALGENETICMATERIALISDNA,SODNAISTHEMAJORGENETICMATERIALTHEVARIATIONOFTHEORDEROF3BASEPAIRSCONSTITUTESTHEDIVERSITYOFDNAMOLECULES,ANDTHEPARTICULARALIGNMENTOFBASEPAIRS,THESPECIFICITYOFEACHDNAMOLECULEISALSOFORMEDTHISEXPLAINSTHEDIVERSITYANDSPECIFICITYOFORGANISMSFROMTHEMOLECULARLEVELBECAUSE4THETRANSMISSIONOFGENETICINFORMATIONISACCOMPLISHEDBYTHEREPLICATIONOFDNAMOLECULESGENEEXPRESSIONISCONTROLLEDBYDNAPROTEINSACHIEVEDBYSYNTHESISTHEUNIQUEDOUBLEHELIXSTRUCTUREOF5DNAPROVIDESAPRECISETEMPLATEFORREPLICATION,ANDENSURESREPLICATIONBYCOMPLEMENTATIONOFBASEPAIRSCAPABLEOFPROCEEDINGACCURATELYTHERECIPROCALRATIOBETWEENTHETWOCOMPLEMENTARYCHAINSISRECIPROCALINTHEENTIREDNAMOLECULE,THEPURINESUMOFBASESSUMOFPYRIMIDINEBASESINTHEENTIREDNAMOLECULE,THERATIOISTHESAMEASFOREACHCHAININTHEMOLECULETHE6OFFSPRINGARESIMILARINCHARACTERTOTHEIRPARENTS,BECAUSETHEOFFSPRINGACQUIREACOPYOFPARENTALREPRODUCTIONOFDNASEVENGENESAREDNAFRAGMENTSWITHGENETICEFFECTS,GENETICALLYARRANGEDONCHROMOSOMES,ANDCHROMOSOMESAREVECTORSOFGENES8BECAUSEDIFFERENTGENESHAVEDIFFERENTSEQUENCEOFNUCLEOTIDEBASEORDER,SODIFFERENTGENESAREDIFFERENTGENETICINFORMATIONIE,THEDNAOFTHEGENE,THENUCLEOTIDEORDER,REPRESENTSTHEGENETICINFORMATIONTHEARRANGEMENTOFTHEDEOXYRIBONUCLEICACIDOFTHE9DNAMOLECULEDETERMINESTHESEQUENCEOFNUCLEOTIDESINTHEMESSENGERRNA,MESSENGERRNATHEARRANGEMENTOFNUCLEOTIDESDETERMINESTHEORDEROFAMINOACIDS,ANDTHEARRANGEMENTOFAMINOACIDSDETERMINESTHEPROTEINTHESPECIFICITYOFTHESTRUCTUREANDFUNCTION,THUSENABLINGORGANISMSTOEXHIBITAVARIETYOFGENETICCHARACTERISTICSGENESCONTROLTHESYNTHESISOFPROTEINSBASESBASENUMBERDUETOBASENUMBERONMRNAAMINOACIDNUMBER631THEAMINOACIDCODONISTHEMESSENGERRNAONTHETHREEADJACENTBASESARENOTBASESONTHETRANSPORTRNATRANSCRIPTIONANDTRANSLATIONSTRICTLYFOLLOWTHEPRINCIPLEOFBASECOMPLEMENTMATCHINGBECAREFULWHENPAIRED,THEACORRESPONDSTOUONTHERNA10ALLGENETICTRAITSARECONTROLLEDBYGENESSOMEGENESCONTROLTHEMETABOLICPROCESSBYCONTROLLINGTHESYNTHESISOFENZYMESANOTHERWAYINWHICHGENESCONTROLTRAITSISBYCONTROLLINGTHESTRUCTUREOFPROTEINMOLECULESTODIRECTLYAFFECTTRAITSFIVE,BIOLOGICALVARIATION1GENEMUTATIONTHECONCEPTOFAGENEMUTATIONAGENECAUSEDBYTHEADDITION,DELETION,ORALTERATIONOFBASEPAIRSINDNAMOLECULESSTRUCTURALCHANGETHECHARACTERISTICSOFGENEMUTATIONAGENEMUTATIONISWIDESPREADINTHEBIOLOGICALWORLD,BGENEMUTATIONISRANDOMOCCURRENCEOFCTHEFREQUENCYOFGENEMUTATIONSISVERYLOW,D,MOSTMUTATIONSAREHARMFULTOORGANISMS,ANDEMUTATIONSARENONDIRECTIONALTHESIGNIFICANCEOFGENEMUTATIONTHEBASICSOURCEOFBIOLOGICALVARIATION,WHICHPROVIDESTHEINITIALRAWMATERIALFORBIOLOGICALEVOLUTIONTYPESOFGENEMUTATIONNATURALMUTATIONANDINDUCEDMUTATIONAPPLICATIONOFARTIFICIALMUTATIONINBREEDINGTHEFREQUENCYOFVARIATIONCANBEIMPROVEDBYARTIFICIALMUTATION,ANDTHEBREEDINGCANBEIMPROVEDGREATLYMATTERCHARACTER2CHROMOSOMALVARIATIONVARIATIONOFCHROMOSOMESTRUCTUREDELETION,ADDITION,INVERSION,TRANSLOCATIONSUCHASCRIDUCHATSYNDROMEVARIATIONINTHENUMBEROFCHROMOSOMESINCLUDINGTHEINCREASEORDECREASEOFINDIVIDUALCHROMOSOMESINCELLSANDTHEMULTIPLICATIONOFCHROMOSOMESINGROUPSLANDINCREASEDECREASECHROMOSOMEGROUPCHARACTERISTICSA,ACHROMOSOMEGROUPDOESNOTCONTAINHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMEB,ACHROMOSOMECONTAINEDINTHEGROUPOFDYEINGTHEBODYSHAPE,SIZE,ANDFUNCTIONVARYC,AGENOME,CONTAINSAWHOLESETOFGENESTHATCONTROLBIOLOGICALTRAITSDIPLOIDORPOLYPLOIDANINDIVIDUALTHATDEVELOPSFROMFERTILIZEDEGGSANDCONTAINSSEVERALCHROMOSOMESINASOMATICCELLANUNFERTILIZEDGERMCELLSPERMOREGGCELLTHATDEVELOPSINTOHAPLOIDPOSSIBLY1ORMOREGENOMESMETHODSTOINDUCEPOLYPLOIDGERMINATIONSEEDSANDSEEDLINGSWERETREATEDWITHCOLCHICINEPRINCIPLEWHENAKIMIZUSENSUKUUSEDINDIVIDINGCELLSTOINHIBITCELLDIVISION,PROPHASESPINDLEFORMATION,RESULTINGINNONSEPARATIONOFCHROMOSOMES,THEREBYCAUSINGDOUBLINGTHENUMBEROFCHROMOSOMESINCELLSTHECHARACTERISTICSOFPOLYPLOIDPLANTSSTOUTSTEM,LEAVES,FRUITSANDSEEDSARERELATIVELYLARGE,NUTRIENTS,CARBOHYDRATESANDPROTEINETCTHEQUALITYHASINCREASEDTHEHAPLOIDPLANTCHARACTERISTICSPLANTSGROWSMALLANDHIGHLYSTERILEMETHODSANTHERHAPLOIDPLANTSWEREOBTAINEDFROMXIUPEIKEEPTHESIGNIFICANCEOFHAPLOIDBREEDINGSIGNIFICANTLYSHORTENTHEBREEDINGYEARSONLYTWOYEARSMEMORYPOINTTHE1CHROMOSOMEGROUPISAGROUPOFNONHOMOLOGOUSCHROMOSOMESINCELLS,WHICHDIFFERINSHAPEANDFUNCTION,BUTTHECARRIERCONTROLSACOMPLETESETOFINFORMATIONABOUTBIOLOGICALGROWTH,HEREDITY,ANDVARIATIONSUCHAGROUPOFCHROMOSOMESISCALLEDAGENOME2HERITABLEVARIATIONISACHANGEINGENETICMATERIAL,INCLUDINGGENEMUTATION,GENERECOMBINATION,ANDCHROMOSOMALVARIATIONGENEMUTATIONTHEBIGGESTFEATUREISTHECREATIONOFNEWGENESITISACHANGEINGENESATONELOCUSOFACHROMOSOMEGENETICMUTATIONSARECOMMON,ITALSOOCCURSRANDOMLYANDHASALOWMUTATIONRATE,MOSTOFWHICHAREHARMFULTOORGANISMS,ANDTHEMUTATIONSARENOTDIRECTIONALAGENETICMUTATIONISTHEROOTOFABIOLOGICALVARIATIONTHISSOURCEPROVIDESINITIALMATERIALFORBIOLOGICALEVOLUTIONGENERECOMBINATIONISACOMBINATIONOFTHEORIGINALGENESOFTHEORGANISMANDISNOTPRODUCTIVEGENESTHATARENEWLYCREATED,BUTAREGENETICALLYINSERTEDINTOANINDIVIDUALBYCROSSINGTHEGENESTHATARENOTINTHESAMEBODYSEXUALREPRODUCTIONTHEPROCESSOFGENERECOMBINATIONPROVIDESAVERYRICHSOURCEOFBIOLOGICALVARIATIONTHISISANIMPORTANTREASONFORTHEFORMATIONOFBIODIVERSITYONEOFTHEMISOFGREATSIGNIFICANCETOBIOLOGICALEVOLUTIONTHESETWOVARIANTSARENOTVISIBLEUNDERTHEMICROSCOPE,BUTTHECHROMOSOMESCHANGETHEDIFFERENCEISTHATTHESTRUCTUREANDNUMBEROFCHROMOSOMESCHANGE,ANDTHEMICROSCOPECANCLEARLYSEETHISISTHEMOSTIMPORTANTDIFFERENCEBETWEENTHEFORMERANDTHETWOTHECHANGEINVOLVESCHROMOSOMECHANGESSUCHASSTRUCTURALCHANGES,INDIVIDUALNUMBERSANDCHANGESINTIMES,INWHICHTHEWHOLECHANGEINREALLIFEOFGREATIMPORTANCE,THUSEXTENDINGASERIESOFCONCEPTSANDTYPES,SUCHASGENOMES,DIPLOID,POLYPLOID,ANDHAPLOIDANDPOLYPLOIDBREEDINGSIXHUMANGENETICDISEASESANDEUGENICS1MEASURESFOREUGENICSPROHIBITINGCONSANGUINEOUSMARRIAGE,CONDUCTINGGENETICCOUNSELING,PROMOTINGCHILDBEARINGAGEANDPRENATALDIAGNOSIS2THEREASONFORPROHIBITINGCONSANGUINEOUSMARRIAGEISTHATCOUPLESOFCONSANGUINEOUSMARRIAGEHAVEAGREATCHANCEOFINHERITINGTHESAMEDISEASECAUSINGGENEFROMTHEIRCOMMONANCESTORAGREATINCREASEINTHERISKOFRECESSIVEGENETICDISEASEAMONGCHILDRENMEMORYPOINT1,MULTIPLEFINGERS,FINGERS,ANDCARTILAGEHYPOPLASIAARESINGLEGENEAUTOSOMALDOMINANTDISEASESVITAMINDRICKETSISASINGLEBASEAUTOSOMALDOMINANTINHERITEDDISORDERSOFTHEXCHROMOSOMEALBINISM,PHENYLKETONURIA,CONGENITALDEAFNESSAREAUTOSOMALRECESSIVERECESSIVEFORMSOFASINGLEGENEPROGRESSIVEDISEASE,PROGRESSIVEMUSCULARDYSTROPHY,REDGREENCOLORBLINDNESS,HEMOPHILIAISAMONOGENICRECESSIVEGENETICDISORDEROFXANENCEPHALY,HYPERTENSION,JUVENILEDIABETESBELONGSTOGENETICDISEASESANOTHERAUTOSOMALCHROMOSOMEGENETICDISEASEADISEASEOFTRISOMY21,SYNDROMESEXCHROMOSOMEDISEASEWITHGONADALHYPOPLASIASEVENCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCETHETRAITOFCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCEMATERNALINHERITANCECAUSEALMOSTALLTHECYTOPLASMINFERTILIZEDEGGSCOMESFROMMOTHERCELLSTHEREISNODEFINITESEPARATIONRATIOCAUSEGERMCELLSAREGENETICALLYANDUNEVENLYDISTRIBUTEDATTHETIMEOFMEIOSISINTHECYTOPLASMTODISTRIBUTEINTOADAUGHTERCELLTHEMATERIALBASISOFCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCETHEPRESENCEOFDNAMOLECULESINTHECYTOPLASM,ANDTHESEDNAMOLECULESARELOCATEDMAINLYATTHELINEINGRAINSANDCHLOROPLASTS,SOMETRAITSCANBECONTROLLEDMEMORYPOINT1EGGCELLSCONTAINLARGEAMOUNTSOFCYTOPLASM,WHEREASSPERMCONTAINONLYASMALLAMOUNTOFCYTOPLASM,THATIS,CELLSINTHEFERTILIZEDEGGTHEQUALITYISALMOSTENTIRELYFROMTHEEGGCELL,SOTHATTHETRAITCONTROLLEDBYTHEGENETICMATERIALINTHECYTOPLASMISACTUALLYPASSEDFROMTHEEGGCELLTOTHEOFFSPRING,THEREFORE,FILIALGENERATIONALWAYSSHOWEDTHETRAITOFFEMALEPARENT2THEMAINCHARACTERISTICSOFCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCEAREMATERNALINHERITANCEOFFSPRINGDONOTSHOWACERTAINSEPARATIONRATIOTHEFORMATIONOFCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCETHEREASONWHYALMOSTALLOFTHECYTOPLASMOFTHEFERTILIZEDEGGCOMESFROMTHEEGGCELLDURINGMEIOSIS,THEGENETICMATERIALINTHECYTOPLASMISRANDOM,UNEQUALDISTRIBUTIONINTOANEGGCELLTHEMATERIALBASISOFCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCEISTHECYTOPLASMICSTRUCTUREOFCHLOROPLASTS,MITOCHONDRIA,ETCDNA3NUCLEARANDCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCEEACHHASRELATIVEINDEPENDENCETHISISBECAUSE,INSPITEOFTHEABSENCEOFSTAININGINTHECYTOPLASMLIKESTRUCTURES,BUTPLASTIDGENES,LIKENUCLEARGENES,CANREPLICATETHEMSELVESANDCANCONTROLPROTEINSTHROUGHTRANSCRIPTIONANDTRANSLATIONSYNTHESIS,THATIS,STABILITY,CONTINUITY,VARIABILITY,ANDINDEPENDENCENUCLEARINHERITANCEANDCYTOPLASMICINHERITANCE,HOWEVERTHEYINTERACTWITHEACHOTHER,ANDMANYOFTHEMARETHERESULTOFNUCLEARCYTOPLASMICINTERACTIONEIGHTINTRODUCTIONOFGENEENGINEERING1THECONCEPTOFGENETICENGINEERINGSTANDARDCONCEPTINVIVO,THROUGHTHEARTIFICIALCUTTINGANDSPLICINGOFDNAMOLECULES,THEBASISOFTHEORGANISMTHERECOMBINANTCELLSAREEXPRESSEDINRECIPIENTCELLSBECAUSETHEYARETRANSFORMEDANDREASSEMBLEDANDTHENPROPAGATEDINTORECIPIENTCELLSFORASEXUALREPRODUCTION,PRODUCETHEGENETICPRODUCTSTHATHUMANBEINGSNEEDPO