0001-hg7164乘用车总体设计cad图翻译外文翻译

1、机电工程学院毕业论文外文资料翻译论文题目: HG7164 乘用车总体设计 译文题目： 现代电动,混合动力和 燃料电池汽车基础,理论和设计 正文：外文资料译文附 件：外文资料原文正文：外文资料译文文献出处：现代电动,混合动力和燃料电池汽车基础,理论和设计第一章第一至第四节，作者：Mehrdad Ehsani 教授；Yimin Gao 教授；Ali Emadi 教授。 和现代运输史内燃发动机车辆的发展，特别是汽车，是现代科技最伟大的成就之一。汽车通过满足人们在日常生活中对不同移动性的要求，对现代社会的发展做出了巨大的贡献。汽车行业的快速发展，不同于其它行业，促使人类的进步从原始的安全性发展到了高度

2、发达的工业体。汽车行业和服务于该行业的行业构成了世界经济的支柱，并且占了雇佣劳动人口的最大份额。然而，世界各地大量汽车的使用已经造成并将继续造成对环境和人类生活的严重问题。空气污染，全球变暖和地球石油资源的快速耗竭是现在最关心的问题。在最近的几十年中，对运输的相关研究和开发活动已经强调了高效，清洁和安全运输发展的必要。通常情况下，电动汽车（EV），混合动力电动汽车（HEV），和燃料电池汽车已提出在不久的将来取代传统的车辆。本章回顾了空气污染，气体排放引起的全球变暖和石油资源枯竭的问题。并且也给出了电动汽车，混合动力汽车历史和燃料电池技术的简要回顾。 1 空气污染目前，所有的汽车都是通过碳氢化合

3、物燃料的燃烧而获得其推动力所需的能量。燃烧是燃料和空气所产生的反应，并释放出热量和燃烧产物。热量通过发动机转化成机械能并且燃烧产物排放到了大气中。HC 是一种其分子由碳原子和氢1指导教师评语：签名：年月日原子组成的化合物。理想情况下，碳氢的燃烧只会产生不会对环境造成的二氧化碳和水。事实上，绿色植物通过光合作用吸收二氧化碳。二氧化碳是植物生命所需的必要成分。除非是空气中氧气几乎不存在，动物的呼吸并不受吸入二氧化碳的影响。 事实上，在燃烧发动机中，HC 的燃烧从来都不是理想的。除了二氧化碳和水，燃烧产物中包含了一定量对人体健康的氮氧化合物（NOx）, 一氧化碳（CO），和未燃烧的碳氢化合物。 1.

4、1 氮氧化物 氮氧化物产生于空气中氮气和氧气之间的反应。理论上讲，氮气是一种惰性气体。然而，发动机中的高温高压环境却为氮氧化物的产生创造了有利的条件。温度是迄今为止氮氧化物形成的最重要的参数。最常见的氮氧化物是一氧化氮（NO），少量的二氧化氮（NO2）和微量的氧化亚氮（N2O）。一旦释放到空气中，一氧化氮就会和氧气反应生成二氧化氮。而二氧化氮接着又会在太阳紫外线的作用下分解为一氧化氮和会对生物活细胞膜产生攻击的高活性氧原子。氮氧化物对烟尘的产生负有一定的责任，其呈褐色的颜色可以使烟雾可见，它也会和大气中的水分反应形成可溶于雨水的硝酸（HNO3）。这种现象被称为“酸雨”，酸雨对工业发达国家森林的

5、破坏负有责任，酸雨也会对由大理石制成的历史遗迹造成破坏。 1.2 一氧化碳 一氧化碳是在缺氧环境下，由于 HC 的不完全燃烧而产生的。对于吸入一氧化碳的人和动物而言，它是一种物质。一旦一氧化碳到达血细胞，它就会取代血红蛋白中的氧，从而减少了到达各个器官的氧的数量并降低了影响生物的生理，心理能力。头晕是一氧化碳中毒的首发症状，并且可迅速导致死亡。一氧化碳与血红蛋白的结合力比氧更强烈。这种结合物的性质十分稳定，身体正常的代谢无法分解破坏它们。因此一氧化碳中毒的人必须在加压室中治疗，其中的压力使它更容易打破该一氧化碳血红蛋白结合物。 1.3 未燃烧的碳氢化合物 2未燃烧的碳氢化合物是由于碳氢化合物的

6、不完全燃烧而生成的。根据其性质，未燃烧的碳氢化合物对生物可能是有害的。这些未燃烧的碳氢化合物可直接成为物质或致癌的化学物质，如颗粒物，苯或其他物质。未燃烧的碳氢化合物也对烟雾的产生负有一定的责任：紫外线与大气中的未燃烧的碳氢化合物和一氧化氮相互作用会生成臭氧和其他物质。臭氧分子由 3 个氧原子组成。它是无色的但却十分危险，它自身的性能攻击活细胞的细胞膜，导致他们提前成熟或死亡。幼儿，老年人和哮喘病人如果处于浓度较高的臭氧环境中，就会遭受到很大的伤害与痛苦。每年，在污染严重的城市，由于高浓度臭氧而导致死亡的已经被报道。 1.4 其他污染物 燃料中杂质的存在导致了排放物的污染。杂质中主要的成分是硫

7、：它主要存在于柴油和喷气燃料中，但同时也存在于汽油和天然气中。硫（或如硫化氢等硫化物）与氧燃烧释放硫氧化物（SOx）。二氧化硫（SO2）是这燃烧的主要产物。二氧化硫与空气接触后形成三氧化硫，接着与水反应生成硫酸（酸雨的主要成分）。也应当指出的是，硫氧化物的排放来自于交通，但也同样大量来自于火力发电厂和钢铁厂。此外，有争论表明火山喷发是硫化物排放的自然来源。 石油公司在他们生产的燃料中加入了一定的化学化合物以提高燃油发动机的性能与寿命。四乙基铅，被称作为“铅”，是用来提高汽油的抗爆震性能，因此发动机能发挥更好的性能。然而，这种化学物质会释放回转金属铅，这种物质会引起被称为“铅中毒”的神经性疾病。

8、现在在大多数的发达国家，这种含铅汽油已经被禁止使用，并且它已经被其他的化学物质所替代。 2 全球变暖全球变暖是由于空气中的二氧化碳和其他大气中的气体如甲烷等气体导致的“温室效应”所引起的。这些气体吸收地球表面反射的红外辐射，从而在大气中储存能量，进而导致了温度的升高。全球气温的升高造成了对生态系统巨大的生态，并导致了很多自然的发生，从而影响了整个人类。 考虑到包括全球变暖在内的生态破坏，一些濒危物种的消失开始成为人们所担忧的问题因为一些人类赖以生存的自然资源遭到了破坏，变得越发的不稳定。3也有人担心一些来自海洋温暖区域的生物迁移至前寒冷的北部海域会潜在的导致该地区自身的物种和经济遭到这些外来物

9、种的破坏。这样的现象可能已经在地中海地区发生了：在这里已经发现了红海梭鱼。 因为自然灾害所带来的大幅度的伤害使得自然灾害吸引我们的关注要超过生态。全球变暖已被认为会导致“厄尔尼诺”气象的发生，这样的气象扰乱了整个南太平洋地区正常的气象，经常发生，洪水泛滥或者干燥大旱。全球变暖的另一个后果就是北极冰盖的融化，这种现象的发生导致海平面上升，进而致使沿海地区甚至整个国家都被永久淹没。 二氧化碳是碳氢化合物和燃煤燃烧的产物，交通运输产生的二氧化碳量占到了二氧化碳排放总量的很大的比例（1980 到 1999 占了 32%）图 1.1 显示了 1980到 1999 年二氧化碳排放的总体分布情况。 图 1.

10、2 显示了在二氧化碳排放的趋势。交通运输部门现在显然是二氧化碳排放的主要来源。应当指出的是，发展中国家正在迅速加大其运输部门的规模，而这些国家的人口占了世界人口的很大一部分。进一步的讨论将在下一节提供。 根据在过去几十年中所观察到的数据来看，由于人类活动放排到大气中大量的二氧化碳是全球气温升高的主要原因。（图 1.3）值得注意的是，二氧化碳确实能被植物所吸收，能以碳酸盐的形式被大海吸收而被存储在大海中。 4 图 1.1 19801999 年二氧化碳排放分布 5 图 1.2 CO2 排放的演变 图 1.3 全球地球大气温度（来源：政府气候变化专门委员会（1995）更新。） 6然而这些自然吸收的过

11、程是有限的，这些吸收作用不能吸收全部的二氧化碳从而导致大气中的二氧化碳逐渐积累。 3 石油资源交通运输中所需的大量的燃料绝大部分都是源自于石油的液体燃料。石油是一种化石燃料，它的形成源自于数百万年前（奥陶纪时期，约 400600 万年前），生物分解后存在于地质稳定层中，经过数百万年的变化最终变成了石油。石油形成的过程大致如下：生物（主要是植物）死亡后，慢慢地被沉积物所覆盖。随着时间的推移，这些沉积物就形成了很厚的地质层并转换成了岩石。这些生物分解物被积压在一个封闭的空间里，在高温高压下，根据他们自身性质的不同，分别转换成为了碳氢化合物或煤。这个过程通常要花数百万年的时间来完成。这就是为什么地球

12、的化石资源是一种有限的资源。 已探明的矿藏含量是：在现有的经济和与操作条件下，已知的矿藏含量与地质和工程信息相结合而合理推测出的在未来能够恢复的矿藏含量。因此，这项信息并不能作为衡量全球矿藏储存量的一个指标。表 1.1 给出了英国石油公司在2001 年估计的探明矿藏量。R/P 比是在现有的生产水平上探明储量能够持续的年数。这项数据同样也在表 1.1 中列出了。 如今的石油开采通常是近地表易于开采的石油，在开采的地方区域气候不会带来很大的问题。据了解，更多的石油位于地壳以下的部分像西伯利亚，美国或加拿大的北极地区。在这些地区，气候和生态是石油勘探和开采的主要障碍。由于政治和技术的原因，整个地球矿

13、藏含量的估计是一个非常苦难的任务。表 1.2给出了 2000 年美国地质调查局估计的未探明的石油资源。 R/P 比并未将未来会探明的矿藏储量包含在内考虑，但是它仍是一项十分重要的指标。事实上，它是基于如今很容易知道的现有已探明的矿藏储量而得出的。未来矿藏发现的含量只是一个假设，并且最新探明的含量并不是很容易获知，R/P比同样也基于生产力将保持不变这一假设。然而，很明显的是矿藏消费（也就是生产）逐年都在随着发达国家和发展中国家增长的经济而加大。矿藏消费很可能在一些人口十分密集的地区迅速增长，特别是在亚太地区。图 1.4 显示了在过去的 20 年里，每日石油消费的变化趋势（单位：天/千桶，一桶约合

14、 8 吨）。 7 表 1.1 表 1.2 就像图 1.5 所显示的，尽管东欧和前苏联的石油消耗在下降，但全球整体的石油消耗的趋势是上升的。石油消耗增长最快的地方是生活着地球上大部分人的亚太地区。 8 图 1.4 各地区的石油消费量 图 1.5 世界石油消费量 9我们可以预期到石油消耗会产生一个爆炸式的增长，同时这样的增长会伴随着污染物和二氧化碳排放含量比例的增加。 4 成本代价伴随着化石燃料燃烧带来的问题有许多：污染，全球变暖，可预见的资源枯竭等等问题。虽然很难估计，但是它所带来的相关问题确实是巨大的，间接的，可能是财务的，可能是人力的，也可能两者都包括。 由污染所带来的成本代价包括了医疗费用

15、，酸雨破坏森林而需要重新种植的成本，酸雨侵蚀纪念碑而需要清理和修复的成本，还有很多并不限于上述的一些代价。医疗费用可能占了这些费用的最大份额，尤其是在发达国家公费医疗或医疗保险的人群。 与全球变暖有关的成本是难以评估的。他们可能包括飓风所造成的损害，因为干旱而死去的庄稼，因为洪水而遭到破坏的财产以及为了去帮助那些感染的人们所提供的国际医疗救援，这些花销的数额十分巨大。 大多数的石油生产国并不是最到的石油消费国，大多数的石油产地都位于中东，但是大多数的石油消费地却位于欧洲，洲，和亚太地区。因此，消费者很依赖进口石油和石油生产国。这个问题在中东地区十分敏感，在 1973 和 1977年，由于政治而

16、影响了石油出口欧洲的数量。海湾战争，是伊朗-战争，美国及其势力在地区内不断进行的监视行动花费了大量的物力和财力。西方经济对于波动的石油供应的依赖潜在里所需要的花费是巨大的.事实上,一次石油供应的短缺就会造成经济增长的严重放缓,进而导致货物的损坏,失去商业机遇,并最终无法进行商业运作。 在寻找与石油消费相关问题的解决方法时，必须考虑那些成本问题。但这项工作是非常困难的，因为许多的花费并不能在它产生的地方直接被认定。许多的诱导成本不能被记入认定的最终方案的益处里。为了能在长期的运作中维持，这些问题的解决必须在没有政府补贴的情况下具有经济可持续性和商业可行性。然而，很清晰的是即便是部分的解决方案，任

17、何的解决方法都将会有利于纳税人，带来成本的节约。 10附件：外文资料原文Environmental Impact and History of Modern TransportationThe development of internal combustion (IC) engine vehicles, and especiallyautomobiles, is one of the greatest achievements of modern technology. Automobiles have made great contributions to the growth of mo

18、dern society by satisfying many of the needs for mobility in everyday life. The rapid development of the automotive industry, unlike that of any other industry, has prompted the progress of human beings from a primitive security to a highly developed industrial one. The automobileindustry and the ot

19、her industries that serve it constitute the backbone of the worlds economy and employ the greatest share of the working population.However, the large number of automobiles in use around the world has caused and continues to cause serious problems for environment and human life. Airpollution, global

20、warming, and the rapid depletion of the Earths petroleum resources are now problems of paramount concern.In recent decades, the research and development activities related to transportation have emphasized the development of high-efficiency, clean, and safe transportation. Electric vehicles (EVs), h

21、ybrid electric vehicles (HEVs),and fuel cell vehicles have been typically proposed to replace conventional vehicles in the near future.This chapter reviews the problems of air pollution, gas emissions causing global warming, and petroleum resource depletion. It also gives a brief review of the histo

22、ryof EVs, HEVs, and fuel cell technology.1 Air PollutionAt present, all vehicles rely on the combustion of hydrocarbon (HC) fuels to derive the energy necessary for their propulsion. Combustion is a reaction between the fuel and the air that releases heat and combustion products.The heat is converte

23、d11to mechanical power by an engine and the combustion. products are released to the atmosphere. An HC is a chemical compound with molecules made up of carbon and hydrogen atoms. Ideally, the combustion of an HC yields only carbon dioxide and water, which do not harm the environment. Indeed, green p

24、lants “digest” carbon dioxide by photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is a necessary ingredient in vegetal life. Animals do not suffer from breathing carbon dioxide unless its concentration in air is such that oxygen is almost absent.Actually, the combustion of HC fuel in combustion engines is never ideal

25、.Besides carbon dioxide and water, the combustion products contain a certain amount of nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxides (CO), and unburned HCs, all ofwhich are toxic to human health.1.1Nitrogen OxidesNitrogen oxides (NOx) result from the reaction between nitrogen in the air and oxygen. Theore

26、tically, nitrogen is an inert gas. However, the high temperatures and pressures in engines create favorable conditions for the formation of nitrogen oxides. Temperature is by far the most important parameter in nitrogen oxide formation. The most commonly found nitrogen oxide is nitric oxide (NO), al

27、though small amounts of nitric dioxide (NO2) and traces of nitrous oxide (N2O) are present. Once released into the atmosphere, NO reacts with the oxygen to form NO2. This is later decomposed by the Suns ultraviolet radiation back to NO and highly reactive oxygen atoms that attack the membranes of li

28、ving cells. Nitrogen dioxide is partly responsible for smog; its brownish color makes smog visible. It also reacts with atmospheric water to formnitric acid (HNO3), which dilutes in rain. This phenomenon is referred to as “acid rain” and is responsible for the destruction of forests in industrialize

29、d countries.Acid rainalso contributes to the degradation of historical monuments made of marble.11.2Carbon MonoxideCarbon monoxide results from the incomplete combustion of HCs dueto a lack of oxygen.It is a poison to human beings and animals who inhale/breathe it. Once carbon monoxide reaches the b

30、lood cells, it fixes to the hemoglobin in place of12oxygen, thus diminishing the quantity of oxy-gen that reaches the organs and reducing the physical and mental abilities of affected living beings.Dizziness is the first symptom of carbon monoxide poisoning, which can rapidly lead to death. Carbon m

31、onoxide binds more strongly to hemoglobin than oxygen. The bonds are so strong that normal body functions cannot break them. People intoxicated by carbon monoxide must be treated in pressurized chambers, where the pressure makes it easier to break the carbon monoxidehemoglobin bonds.Environmental Im

32、pact and Historyof Modern Transportation.1.3 Unburned HCsUnburned HCs are a result of the incomplete combustion of HCs.1,2 Depending on their nature, unburned HCs may be harmful to living beings.Some of these unburned HCs may be direct poisons or carcinogenic chemicals such as particulates, benzene,

33、 or others. Unburned HCs are also responsible for smog:the Suns ultraviolet radiations interact with the unburned HCs and NO in the atmosphere to form ozone and other products. Ozone is a molecule formed of three oxygen atoms. It is colorless but very dangerous, and is poisonous because as it attack

34、s the membranes of living cells, causing them to age pre-maturely or die. Toddlers, older people, and asthmatics suffer greatly from exposure to high ozone concentrations.Annually, deaths from high ozone peaks in polluted cities have been reported.1.4Other PollutantsImpurities in fuels result in the

35、 emission of pollutants. The major impurity is sulfur: mostly found in diesel and jet fuel, but also in gasoline and natural gas. The combustion of sulfur (or sulfur compounds such as hydrogen sulfide) with oxygen releases sulfur oxides (SOx). Sulfur dioxide (SO2)is the major product of this combust

36、ion. On contact with air, it forms sulfur trioxide,which later reacts with water to form sulfuric acid, a major component of acid rain. It should be noted that sulfur oxide emissions originate from transportation sources but also largely from the combustion of coal in power plants and steel factorie

37、s. In addition, there is debate over the exact contribution of natural sources such as volcanoes.13Petroleum companies add chemical compounds to their fuels in orderto improve the performance or lifetime of engines.Tetraethyl lead, often referred to simply as“lead,” was used to improve the knock res

38、istance of gasoline and therefore allow better engine performance. However, the combustion of this chemical releases lead metal, which is responsible for a neurological disease called “saturnism.” Its use is now forbidden in most developed countriesand it has been replaced by otherchemicals.2 Global

39、 WarmingGlobal warming is a result of the “greenhouse effect” induced by the presence of carbon dioxide and other gases, such as methane, in the atmosphere. These gases trap the Suns infrared radiation reflected by the ground, thus retaining the energy in the atmosphere and increasing the temperatur

40、e. An increased Earth temperature results in major ecological damages to its ecosystems and in many natural disasters that affect human populations.Considering the ecological damages induced by global warming, the disappearance of some endangered species is a concern because this destabilizes the na

41、tural resources that feed some populations. There are also concerns about the migration of some species from warm seas to previously colder northern seas, where they can potentially destroy indigenous species and the economies that live off those species. This may be happening in the Mediterranean S

42、ea, where barracudas from the Red Sea have been observed.Natural disasters command our attention more than ecological disasters because of the amplitude of the damages they cause. Global warming is believed to haveinduced meteorological phenomena such as “El Nio,”which disturbs the South Pacific reg

43、ion and regularly causes tornadoes, inundations, and dryness. The melting of the polar icecaps, another major result of global warming, raises the sea level and can cause the permanent inundation of coastal regions and sometimes of entirecountries.14Carbon dioxide is the result of the combustion of

44、HCs and coal. Transportation accounts for a large share (32% from 1980 to 1999) of carbon dioxide emissions. The distribution of carbon dioxide emissions is shown in Figure 1.1.Figure 1.2 shows the trend in carbon dioxide emissions. The transportation sector is clearly now the major contributor to c

45、arbon dioxide emissions. It should be noted that developing countries are rapidly increasing their transportation sector, and these countries represent a very large share of the world population. Further discussion is provided in the next subsection.The large amounts of carbon dioxide released into

46、the atmosphere by human activities are believed to be largely responsible for the increase in the global Earth temperature observed during the last decades (Figure 1.3). It is important to note that carbon dioxide is indeed digested by plants and sequestrated by oceans in the form of carbonates. How

47、ever, these natural Residential assimilation processes are limited andcannot assimilate all of the emitted carbon dioxide, resulting in an accumulationFIGURE 1.1 Carbon dioxide emission distribution from 1980 to 1999.15FIGURE 1.2 Evolution of CO2 emission.FIGURE 1.3 Global Earth atmospheric temperat

48、ure. (Source:IPCC (1995) updated.)of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.163 Petroleum ResourcesThe vast majority of fuels for transportation are liquid fuels originating from petroleum. Petroleum is a fossil fuel, resulting from the decomposition of living matters that were imprisoned millions of year

49、s ago (Ordovician, 600400 million years ago) in geologically stable layers. The process is roughly the following: living matters (mostly plants) die and are slowly covered by sediments. Over time, these accumulating sediments form thick layers and transform to rock. The living matters are trapped in

50、 a closed space, where they encounter high pressures and temperatures and slowly transform into either HCs or coal, depending on their nature. This process takes millions of years to accomplish. This is what makes the Earths resources in fossil fuels finite.Proved reserves are “those quantities that

51、 geological and engineering information indicates with reasonable certainty can be recovered in the future from knownreservoirs under existing economic and operating conditions.” Therefore, they do not constitute an indicator of the Earths total reserves. The proved reserves, as they are given in th

52、e British Petroleum 2001 estimate,are given in billion tons in Table 1.1.TheR/Pratio is the number of years that the proved reserves would last if the production were to continue at its current level. This ratio is also given in Table 1.1 for each region.The oil extracted nowadays is the easily extr

53、actable oil that lies close to the surface, in regions where the climate does not pose major problems. It is believed that far more oil lies underneath the Earths crust in regions such as Siberia, or the American and Canadian Arctic. In these regions, the climate and ecological concerns are major ob

54、stacles to extracting or prospecting for oil. The estimation of the totalEarths reserves is a difficult task for political and technical reasons. A 2000 estimation of the undiscovered oil resources by the US Geological Survey is given in Table 1.2.Although theR/Pratio does not include future discove

55、ries, it is significant. Indeed,it is based on proved reserves, which are easily accessible to this day. The amount of17future oil discoveries is hypothetical, and the newly discovered oil will not be easily accessible. TheR/Pratio is also based on the hypothesis that the production will remain cons

56、tant. It is obvious, however,that consumption (and therefore production) is increasing yearly to keep up with the growth of developed and developing economies.Consumption is likely to increase in gigantic proportions with the rapid developmentof somelargely populatedcountries, particularly in the As

57、ia-Pacific region. Figure 1.4 shows the trend in oil consumption over the last 20 years.Oil consumption is given in thousand barrels per day (one barrel is about 8 metric tons).Despite the drop in oil consumption for Eastern Europe and the former USSR, the world trend is clearly increasing, as shown in Figure 1.5. The18fastest-growing region is Asia Pacific, where most of the worlds population lives. Anexplosion in oil consumption is to be expected, withFIGURE 1.4 Oil consumption per region.a proportional increase in pollutant emissions