加二给的专业外语翻译

1、1. All molecules, whether the small type or the large type that result when particular small molecules join together, are made up of atoms (such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen). When any small molecule is formed, the atoms join together into a specific arrangement that is characteristic of

2、 the particular molecule. The types of atoms and their arrangement determine the properties of the molecule. 所有的分子，无论是小分子还是由特定小分子连在一起而产生的大分子，都是由原子组成（如碳，氢，氧，氮）。当任何一个小分子形成时，原子以特定排布连接在一起，这种排布为某一分子所特有。原子的类型及排布决定了分子的性质。2. The bulk properties are determined by both the molecular properties (properties tha

3、t depend upon the molecular nature of the material, such as chemical reactivity) and the collective properties (properties that depend upon the interaction of the molecules, such as crystal formation). Subsequent chapters examine both the molecular and bulk properties of plastics because understandi

4、ng many properties of plastics, such as mechanical strength, melting point, and solvent reactivity, depends upon understanding both the molecular and the bulk nature of plastic materials. （高分子的）整体性质由分子性质（由组成物质分子的特性所决定的性质，如化学反应活性）和聚集性质（由分子间相互作用所决定的性质，如晶型）所共同决定。随后的章节会分别考察分子性质和聚集性质，因为要理解塑料的诸多特性，如机械强度，熔

5、点和溶解性，须建立在理解塑料分子性质和整体特性的基础之上。3. Typical molding processes are extrusion, injection molding, compression molding, and casting. Molding companies that have plastic parts as their principal products usually have many plastic processing machines and make parts in large quantities. Typical examples of th

6、ese companies are plastic-pipe extruders, injection molders of automotive parts, or plastic-toy manufacturers.典型的模制工序有挤出成型，注入成型，挤压成型，铸造成型。拥有塑料零件并将其作为主要产品的成型公司一般有很多塑料成型加工设备，并大规模地制造零件。这些公司的典型例子有塑料管挤出商，机动零件的注射成型商，或者塑料玩具制造商。4. The solid state of polymeric materials is, in some ways, more complex that th

7、e solid state of most ionic, metallic, and small covalent molecules. The complexity in polymers arises because solid polymeric materials can exist, in two very distinct types of structures. In one type, the polymer molecules are randomly coiled about each other with entanglement, called amorphous. I

8、n the second type of configuration, the polymer molecules can pack together into regular, repeating structural patterns. These regularly packed regions are called crystals or crystalline regions. 高分子材料的固态在某些方面要比大部分离子型，金属型，以及小型共价的分子的固态更复杂。高分子这种复杂性的产生是因为高分子材料可以两种截然不同的结构类型存在。第一种构造类型中，高分子链无规地互相盘绕而缠结在一起，

9、称为非晶态。第二种构造类型中，高分子链可以聚集在一起并形成一种规整，重复的结构模式。这些规整的聚集区域称为晶区。5. The most important (but not the only) feature of a polymer that determines whether it will be amorphous or crystalline is the shape of the polymer repeat unit. If the repeat unit is complex, especially with large pendant groups, the polymer

10、cannot pack tightly together and will be amorphous. Some of the most common amorphous polymers are polystyrene, acrylic, polycarbonate, and most copolymers. Approximately half of the most common commercial plastics are amorphous.决定高分子是晶态还是非晶态的最重要特征之一是高分子重复单元的形态。若重复单元很复杂，特别是带有大型侧基时，高分子不能紧密堆积在一起并形成非晶态

11、。一些最常见的非晶态高分子有聚苯乙烯，丙烯酸塑料，聚碳酸酯以及大部分共聚物。约有一半最常见的商业化塑料是非晶态的。6. The amount of crystallinity in the polymer depends upon several factors.The most important is the size and regularity of the pendant groups (the groups attached to the main polymer backbone). If these pendant groups are relatively small and

12、 are regularly spaced along the polymer chain, they will not interfere with each other and the polymer chains can pack closer together. Forces of attraction and other similar interactions between polymers, such as hydrogen bonding, also increase crystallinity. 高分子中结晶度的数量由几个因素决定。最重要的因素是侧基（连接在高分子主链上的基

13、团）的尺寸和规整性。如果这些侧基相对较小并沿高分子主链有规律地分隔排布，t它们不会互相干预，进而高分子链可以更紧密的堆积在一起。高分子之间的吸引力及其他类似的相互作用，如氢键，也会提高结晶度。7. The effect of crystallinity on impact toughness is somewhat more involved. The crystalline sections of a polymer are not as effective in absorbing and dissipating impact energy as are the amorphous reg

14、ions because the atoms in the crystalline regions are not as free to rotate, vibrate, and translate. This restriction on atomic movement causes highly crystalline materials to be stiffer and more brittle. Therefore, even though the strength increases, the impact toughness often decreases for highly

15、crystalline materials. 结晶度对冲击韧性的影响在某种程度上更为复杂。高分子结晶部分对冲击能量的吸收和耗散不如非晶区有效，因为和非晶区相比，晶区中原子的转动，振动和转化不是那么自由。这种在原子运动上的约束导致高结晶度的材料表现的更硬更脆。故而，尽管强度增加，高结晶度材料的冲击韧性通常会降低。8. Viscosity is the resistance to flow that is present in all fluids. Some fluids, like liquid polymers have very high viscosities, which arise

16、from the entanglement of the polymer chains. A key thermal effect on viscosity is that as the temperature increases, viscosity drops. This is a critical property in many plastic processes because the viscosity affects mold filling and other shaping processes in which it can most easily be controlled

17、 by the use of temperature.粘度是所有流体所表现出的对流动的抵抗能力。一些流体，如液态高分子，具有很高的粘度，这种高粘度产生于高分子链的缠结。粘度的一个关键热效应是其随温度的升高而下降。这是许多塑料加工工艺中的一个关键特性，因为粘度会影响模具填充及其他成型工序，在这些工序中通过调整温度可以很容易地控制粘度。9. To become a gas, a molecular chain would have to completely disengage from its neighbors and much energy would be needed. However,

18、 as the amount of energy in the polymer system is increased to try and boil the liquid, the internal vibrations increase and become so great that the energy flowing along the polymer chain exceeds the energy of the covalent bonds. When this occurs, the bonds break and decomposition occurs. Hence, be

19、fore a polymer will boil to form a gas, it will decompose by breaking primary bonds.欲成为气体，一条分子链将必须从他旁边的链中脱离出来并需要大量能量。然而，由于尝试使液体沸腾所需能量在高分子体系中增加，高分子的内振动增加并变得非常显著，以至于沿着高分子链的能流超过了共价键的能量。当上述情况发生时，价键断裂，高分子发生分解反应。故而，高分子将要沸腾并变为气体之前，它将通过主价键的断裂而分解。10. Creep becomes greater as the temperature of the polymer in

20、creases and as the amount of secondary bonding and entanglement decreases. Therefore, polymers that have high secondary bonding, such as crystalline polymers, have inherently less creep than do amorphous polymers, assuming other factors are equal. Creep is also reduced by high entanglement, by the p

21、resence of large pendant groups that inhibit movement, by crosslinking, and by the inherent stiffness of the backbone of the polymer. 当高分子的温度升高，以及次价键和缠结效应减弱时，蠕动变得更显著。因此，有强次价键的高分子，如结晶高分子，在假设其他因素相同时本身就比非晶高分子有更少的蠕变。通过抑制分子运动的大型侧基的出现、交联以及高分子主链固有的硬性，分子链的高度缠结也会减少蠕变。11. For some applications, the maximum us

22、e temperature may be lower than the HDT because of excessive creep of the plastic material. Plastics with high creep may, given enough time, eventually distort, even under only moderately elevated temperatures or even at room temperatures. The maximum structural use temperature is, in these cases, d

23、etermined from the lowest temperature at which change in the plastic material occurs that would be detrimental to the particular application.对于一些应用，由于塑料过度的蠕变，最高使用温度可能比热变形温度（heat distortion temperature）低。高度蠕变的塑料，即使只在适度的高温或甚至在室温下，如果给定充足时间最终将扭曲变形。在上述情况下，结构上的最大使用温度就由塑料中产生的变化不利于特定应用时所处的最低温度来决定。12. The de

24、composition temperature can be determined using DSC or TMA but is probably easier to obtain using a test called thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In some polymers, degradation can occur at temperatures below the decomposition temperature because of the presence of certain contaminating materials wit

25、hin the polymer mass. The most common of these contaminants are residual catalyst particles, often metals. 用差示扫描量热法（differential scanning calorimetry）或TMA可以测定分解温度，但用一种叫做热重分析的测试方法貌似更容易获得这一温度。在一些高分子中，分解反应可以在低于分解温度的温度下发生，因为高分子中存在某些污染物质。这些污染物最常见的有残余催化剂粒子，多数情况下是金属。13. Both the average molecular weight an

26、d the shape of the molecular weight distribution can significantly affect some key physical and mechanical properties of the polymer, such as tensile strength, impact toughness and creep resistance. In general, a higher average molecular weight increases all of these properties. The reason is primar

27、ily explained by intermolecular interactions. Two of the most common of these interactions are entanglement and secondary bonding.平均分子量和分子量分布情况都会对高分子的一些关键的物理机械性能产生深远影响，如抗拉强度，冲击韧性和蠕变强度。一般地，一个更高的平均分子量会使所有这些特性增长。原因主要可用分子间相互作用来解释。这些相互作用中最常见的两种是缠结和次价键。14. In solids, as energy is added through mechanical

28、forces, the chains will gradually disentangle and the secondary bonds will eventually dissolve, thus allowing the molecules to translate relative to each other to relieve the stress. However, this untangling and sliding takes time to accomplish. Therefore, at higher shear rates, the polymer molecule

29、s do not have as much time to move and the disentanglement is forced, resulting in a greater resistance to movement. The result is an apparently stiffer material when sheared very quickly.在固体中，当通过机械力施加能量时，分子链将逐渐解缠，次价键最终将打开，这样就允许分子相对于彼此发生转化以缓解压力。然而，这种解缠和滑移需要时间来完成。因此，在高的剪切速率下，高分子没有足够的时间来运动而被迫解缠，从而具有更大

30、的对运动的抵抗力。结果是当高速剪切时，材料明显更坚硬。15. The molecular interpretation (in polymers) of elastic and plastic behavior is that in the elastic region the strain results from recoverable movement-stretching out of the twisted molecules in the amorphous regions and minor deformations in the crystalline regions. At

31、the yield point, nonrecoverable movements begin that result in permanent deformation. Some of the most common are disentanglement of the molecules, slip of one molecule past another in a way that the slip could not be recovered, slip along a crystal plane, and formation of a crack. 对高聚物弹性和塑性行为的分子状态的

32、解释是：在弹性区，应变产生于可恢复的运动非晶区中从缠绕的分子中伸展以及晶区中的较小变形。在屈服点，不可恢复的运动开始发生并导致永久性变形。最常见的形式有分子链的解缠，一个分子相对于另一分子滑移并且在某种程度上滑移不能恢复，沿晶面滑移，及破裂的形成。16. In summary, the true stress-strain curve reflects what is actually happening at the molecular level, a continuous increase in the stress, while the engineering stress-strai

33、n curve reflects the necking of the sample and better indicates what a plastic part might do in actual use. Therefore, when the engineering strain-to-failure is reported, the value is often given as a ratio of the amount of deformation compared to the original length. 概括的说，实际应力应变曲线反映了随着应力的逐渐增加分子水平的真

34、实变化，而工程应力应变曲线却反映了试样的细颈部分并更好的显示了一个塑料制品在实际使用中起什么作用。因此，当知道了失效工程应变后，就能评估相对于原始长度的形变比例17. Most viscoelastic materials will also show significant deformations with static (unchanging) loads but over long periods of time. This property is called creep, defined as the gradual deformation of a material under

35、a static load. If a viscoelastic material is loaded for a long period of time, at a high temperature, with a substantial load, the sample will eventually break. This is called creep rupture.大多数粘弹性材料在长时间的静载荷作用下也能表现出明显的形变。这种特性叫做蠕变，是在静载荷作用下材料逐渐变形的定义。在高温下如果长时间给粘弹性材料施加一个很大的力，那么试样最终会断裂。这就叫做蠕变断裂。18. The ab

36、ility of a material to absorb energy without breaking (rupture) is called toughness. Two types of toughness can be considered, equilibrium toughness and impact toughness. Equilibrium toughness is related to the area under the stress-strain curve because energy absorption is the summation of all of t

37、he force resistance effects within the system. The impact toughness (sometimes called impact strength) is defined as the energy absorbed by a material upon sudden impact. 材料吸收能量而不断裂的能力叫做韧性。韧性分两种：平衡韧性和冲击韧性。平衡韧性与应力应变曲线下的面积有关，因为吸收的能量是系统内抵抗力的效果的总和。冲击韧性（有时也叫冲击强度）是材料受到突然冲击时吸收的能量。19. The strength and modul

38、us of many plastic materials can be substantially increased by the addition of strong, high-modulus materials, called reinforcements. These reinforcements are often in the shape of fibers (such as fiberglass) because fibers can be made very stiff, primarily in their long direction. These materials,

39、which combine plastics with reinforcements, are called composites.当添加了高强度高模量的材料（增强剂）后很多材料的强度和模量大大提高了。这些增强剂通常是纤维状的（像玻璃纤维），因为在纵向上纤维强度很好。这些把塑料和增强剂结合在一起的材料叫做复合材料。20. Commodity resins are those that are sold in very large volumes and can be obtained, with only minor variations in properties, from several

40、, competing resin manufacturers. The resins most commonly referred to as commodity resins are polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, and various modifications of these basic resins. All of the commodity resins are polymerized by the addition mechanism from monomers containing

41、a carbon-carbon double bond, three hydrogens, and one pendant atom. 通用树脂的销售量非常大，并能从一些竞争的树脂生产厂商那儿获得，只是性能有少许差异。通常被称作通用树脂的树脂有：聚乙烯、聚丙烯、聚氯乙烯、聚苯乙烯和以这些树脂为基础的各种改性树脂。所有这些通用树脂都是从含有碳碳双键、三个氢原子和一个侧基原子的单体通过加成机理聚合得到的。21. Most of the resins identified as engineering thermoplastics possess the following key property

42、 characteristics. (1) High strength and stiffness, comparable to most metals and other natural, structural materials when adjusted for the difference in weights. (2)Retention of mechanical properties over a wide range of temperatures, especially high temperatures. (3) Sufficient toughness to withsta

43、nd incidental impacts (4) Dimensional stability throughout the temperature range of normal use. (5) The ability of the material to withstand environmental factors, (6) As easy to shape and finish as metals because they are often substituted directly for a metal. 被当做热塑性工程塑料的大多数树脂具有如下一些主要性能参数：1.高的强度和刚

44、度，当调整质量上的差异后同大多数金属材料和天然结构材料类似。2.在较宽的温度变化范围之内，特别是在高温时，仍保持机械性能。3.足够的抗冲击强度。4.在常温变化下使用拥有尺寸稳定性。5.材料的承受环境因素能力。6.由于经常被用来替代金属，还应像金属一样很容易造型和完成。22. Engineering thermoplastics are generally strong and have, a high use temperature, good impact strength, good dimensional stability over a wide range of temperatur

45、es, generally good resistance to environmental conditions, and are much more moldable than the metal, ceramic, or wood parts that they often replace. 热塑性工程塑料通常很牢固并具备很高的使用温度，好的抗冲击强度，在宽的温度变化范围内拥有好的稳定性，好的环境抵抗力，并且比金属、陶瓷或常被取代的木制品更容易成模.23. Even though the ram injector machine was developed before the reci

46、procating screw machine and is generally less expensive to build, some important advantages of the reciprocating screw machine have given it a preeminent position in the marketplace. These advantages include (1) more uniform melting, (2) improved mixing of additives and dispersion throughout the res

47、in, (3) lower injection pressures, (4) larger permissible part area, (5) fewer stresses in parts, and (6) faster total cycle. 即使柱塞式注射机比往复式螺杆机先发展并且花费也比较低，往复式螺杆机的一些重大优势也使它在市场上拥有了卓越的地位。这些优势包括：1.更均一的融合性能。2.在树脂中添加剂的混合和扩散性能更好。3.较低的注射压力。4.更大的部件允许面积。5.部件中更低的残余应力。6.更短的循环周期。24. Several hoppers can feed one ma

48、chine so that fillers, colorants, or other additives can be introduced simultaneously. However, because of the limited size (barrel length) of most injection molding machines, mixing capability is poor and so most fillers and other resins are preferably blended in a separate extrusion operation. Col

49、orants are commonly added as preextruded concentrates rather than directly to the injection molding machine. 几个加料斗可以同时向一个机器加料，这样的话填料、颜料或其他一些添加剂可以同时加入。然而由于大多数注射成型设备的尺寸（料筒长度）受到限制，使得混合能力低下，所以大多数的填料以及其他树脂应该用单独的挤出工序混合。着色剂通常是在预挤出物成型时加入，而不是直接加到注射成型设备中。25. The keys to success in injection molding are (1) th

50、e proper machine for good melting and rejecting of the resin, (2) the proper resin for appropriate part performance, (3) a good mold for part definition and removal, and (4) proper operation for efficient molding cycles. The major factors that determine costs are material type, mold cost, parts per

51、cycle, and mold cycle time. Here, the material type is usually determined by the part design and performance requirements. 注射成型工艺成功的关键有：1.把树脂良好融化并注射的机器。2.拥有恰当的制件性能的树脂。3.让制件能很好成模脱模的模具。4.高效成型周期的正确操作。决定成本的主要因素有：不同种类原材料的成本、模具成本、每个生产周期生产的制件、成型周期的时间。其中原材料类型通常是由制件的设计以及其性能需要所决定的。26. Sheet extrusion introduc

52、ed the concept of a wide die (clothes hanger die) that allows even or plug flow through the die so that internal stresses will not be created. This type of die is also used in coating wide materials such as paper and fabric. A wide die can also be used to feed material to a calendering operation in

53、which rolls are used to change the shape of the molten plastic material. 片材挤压引进了宽口模（衣架式口模）的概念，即使是塞式流动也被允许通过这种口模，故不会形成内应力。这种口模也被用在涂覆像纸张和布料等宽材料上。在混炼橡胶操作中宽口模被用来加料，辊碎机的这种操作是用来改变熔融塑料材料的形状的。27. Of all the equipment and key operating parameters, both from the viewpoint of required function and operational effect, one important operational concept should be reemphasized. Extruder