HND HR management theory

1、HND HR management theoryEquity Theory attempts to explain relational satisfaction in terms of perceptions of fair/unfair distributions of resources within interpersonal relationships. Equity theory is considered as one of the justice theories. It was first developed in 1962 by John Stacey Adams, a w

2、orkplace and behavioral psychologist, who asserted that employees seek to maintain equity between the inputs that they bring to a job and the outcomes that they receive from it against the perceived inputs and outcomes of others (Adams, 1965). The belief is that people value fair treatment which cau

3、ses them to be motivated to keep the fairness maintained within the relationships of their co-workers and the organization. The structure of equity in the workplace is based on the ratio of inputs to outcomes. Inputs are the contributions made by the employee for the organization; this includes the

4、work done by the employees and the behavior brought by the employee as well as their skills and other useful experiences the employee may contribute for the good of the company.BackgroundEquity theory proposes that individuals who perceive themselves as either under-rewarded or over-rewarded will ex

5、perience distress, and that this distress leads to efforts to restore equity within the relationship. It focuses on determining whether the distribution of resources is fair to both relational partners. Equity is measured by comparing the ratios of contributions and benefits of each person within th

6、e relationship. Partners do not have to receive equal benefits (such as receiving the same amount of love, care, and financial security) or make equal contributions (such as investing the same amount of effort, time, and financial resources), as long as the ratio between these benefits and contribut

7、ions is similar. Much like other prevalent theories of motivation, such as Maslows hierarchy of needs, Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and variable individual factors affect each persons assessment and perception of their relationship with their relational partners (Guerrero et al., 2007). Ac

8、cording to Adams (1965), anger is induced by underpayment inequity and guilt is induced with overpayment equity (Spector 2008). Payment whether hourly wage or salary, is the main concern and therefore the cause of equity or inequity in most cases. In any position, an employee wants to feel that thei

9、r contributions and work performance are being rewarded with their pay. If an employee feels underpaid then it will result in the employee feeling hostile towards the organization and perhaps their co-workers, which may result the employee not performing well at work anymore. It is the subtle variab

10、les that also play an important role for the feeling of equity. Just the idea of recognition for the job performance and the mere act of thanking the employee will cause a feeling ofsatisfaction and therefore help the employee feel worthwhile and have more outcomes.edit Definition of equityAn indivi

11、dual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him. Thus, all else being equal, it would be acceptable for a more senior colleague to receive higher compensation, since the value of his experience (an input) is hi

12、gher. The way people base their experience with satisfaction for their job is to make comparisons with themselves to the people they work with. If an employee notices that another person is getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have done the same amount and qua

13、lity of work, it would persuade the employee to be dissatisfied. This dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling underappreciated and perhaps worthless. This is in direct contrast with the idea of equity theory, the idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the qualit

14、y and quantity of the employees contributions (inputs). If both employees were perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the organization is fair, observant, and appreciative.This can be illustrated by the following equation:Outputs are defined as the positive and negative

15、consequences that an individual perceives a participant has incurred as a consequence of his/her relationship with another. When the ratio of inputs to outcomes is close, than the employee should have much satisfaction with their job. Outputs can be both tangible and intangible (Walster, Traupmann &

16、 Walster, 1978). Typical outcomes include any of the following:?Job security?Esteem?Salary?Employee benefit?Expenses?Recognition?Reputation?Responsibility?Sense of achievement?Praise?Thanks?Stimuliedit PropositionsEquity Theory consists of four propositions:1.Individuals seek to maximize their outco

17、mes (where outcomes aredefined as rewards minus costs)1.2.Groups can maximize collective rewards by developing acceptedsystems for equitably apportioning rewards and costs among members.Systems of equity will evolve within groups, and members willattempt to induce other members to accept and adhere

18、to thesesystems. The only way groups can induce members to equitably behave is by making it more profitable to behave equitably than inequitably.Thus, groups will generally reward members who treat othersequitably and generally punish (increase the cost for) members who treat others inequitably.3.Wh

19、en individuals find themselves participating in inequitablerelationships, they become distressed. The more inequitable therelationship, the more distress individuals feel. According toequity theory, both the person who gets “too much” and the person wh o gets “too little” feel distressed. The person

20、 who gets too much may feel guilt or shame. The person who gets too little may feel angry or humiliated.4.Individuals who perceive that they are in an inequitablerelationship attempt to eliminate their distress by restoringequity. The greater the inequity, the more distress people feel and the more

21、they try to restore equity. (Walster, Traupmann and Walster, 1978)edit Equity Theory in businessEquity Theory has been widely applied to business settings by Industrial Psychologists to describe the relationship between an employees motivation and his or her perception of equitable or inequitable tr

22、eatment. In a business setting, the relevant dyadic relationship is that between employee and employer. As in marriage and other contractual dyadic relationships, Equity Theory assumes that employees seek to maintain an equitable ratio between the inputs they bring to the relationship and the outcom

23、es they receive from it (Adams, 1965). Equity Theory in business, however, introduces the concept of social comparison, whereby employeesevaluate their own input/output ratios based on their comparison with the input/outcome ratios of other employees (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). Inputs in this cont

24、ext include t he employees time, expertise, qualifications, experience, intangible personal qualities such as drive and ambition, and interpersonal skills. Outcomes include monetary compensation, perquisites (“perks”), benefits, and flexible work arrangements. Employees who perceive inequity will se

25、ek to reduce it, either by distorting inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds (cognitive distortion), directly altering inputs and/or outcomes, or leaving the organization (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978). Thus, the theory haswide-reaching implications for employee morale, efficiency, productivity, an

26、d turnover.edit Assumptions of Equity Theory applied to businessThe three primary assumptions applied to most business applications of Equity Theory can be summarized as follows:1.Employees expect a fair return for what they contribute to theirjobs, a concept referred to as the “equity norm”.2.Emplo

27、yees determine what their equitable return should be aftercomparing their inputs and outcomes with those of their coworkers.This concept is referred to as “social comparison”.3.Employees who perceive themselves as being in an inequitablesituation will seek to reduce the inequity either by distorting

28、inputs and/or outcomes in their own minds (“cognitivedistortion”), by directly altering inputs and/or outpu ts, or by leaving the organization. (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978)edit Implications for managersEquity theory has several implications for business managers: ?People measure the totals of their

29、inputs and outcomes. This meansa working mother may accept lower monetary compensation in returnfor more flexible working hours.?Different employees ascribe personal values to inputs and outcomes.Thus, two employees of equal experience and qualificationperforming the same work for the same pay may h

30、ave quite different perceptions of the fairness of the deal.?Employees are able to adjust for purchasing power and local market conditions. Thus a teacher from Alberta may accept lowercompensation than his colleague in Toronto if his cost of livingis different, while a teacher in a remote African vi

31、llage may accepta totally different pay structure.?Although it may be acceptable for more senior staff to receive higher compensation, there are limits to the balance of the scales of equity and employees can find excessive executive paydemotivating.?Staff perceptions of inputs and outcomes of thems

32、elves and others may be incorrect, and perceptions need to be managed effectively.?An employee who believes he is over-compensated may increase his effort. However he may also adjust the values that he ascribes to his own personal inputs. It may be that he or she internalizes a sense of superiority

33、and actually decrease his efforts.edit Criticisms and related theoriesCriticism has been directed toward both the assumptions and practical application of Equity Theory. Scholars have questioned the simplicity of the model, arguing that a number of demographic and psychological variables affect peop

34、les perceptions of fairness and interactions with others. Furthermore, much of the research supporting the basic propositions of equity theory has been conducted in laboratory settings, and thus has questionable applicability to real-world situations (Huseman, Hatfield & Miles, 1987). Critics have a

35、lso argued that people might perceive equity/inequity not only in terms of the specific inputs and outcomes of a relationship, but also in terms of the overarching system that determines those inputs and outputs. Thus, in a business setting, one might feel that his or her compensation is equitable t

36、o other employees, but one might view the entire compensation system as unfair (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978).Researchers have offered numerous magnifying and competing perspectives: edit Equity Sensitivity ConstructThe Equity Sensitivity Construct proposes that individuals have different preferences

37、for equity and thus react differently to perceived equity and inequity. Preferences can be expressed on a continuum from preferences for extreme under-benefit to preferences for extreme over-benefit. Three archetypal classes are as follows:?Benevolents, those who prefer their own input/outcome ratio

38、s to be less than those of their relational partner. In other words, the benevolent prefers to be under-benefitted.?Equity Sensitives, those who prefer their own input/outcome ratios to be equal to those of their relational partner.?Entitleds, those who prefer their own input/outcome ratios to excee

39、d those of their relational partner. In other words, theentitled prefers to be over-benefitted. (Huseman, Hatfield & Miles, 1987)edit Fairness ModelThe Fairness Model proposes an alternative measure of equity/inequity to the relational partner or comparison person of standard Equity Theory. Accordin

40、g to the Fairness Model, an individual judges the overall fairness of a relationship by comparing their inputs and outcomes with an internally derived standard. The Fairness Model thus allows for the perceived equity/inequity of the overarching system to be incorporated into individuals evaluations

41、of their relationships (Carrell and Dittrich, 1978).公平实践由斯达西亚当斯(J.Stacey Adams)提出，那一实践以为员工尾先思索本人支进取支付的比率，而后将本人的支进-支付比取相干别人的支进-支付比举行对比，假如员工感到到本人的比率取别人不异，则为偏心形态；假如感应2者的比率没有不异，则发生没有偏心感，也便是道，他们会以为本人的支进太低或者太高。那种没有偏心感呈现后，员工们便会试图往改正它。员工没有是正在实空情况中事情，他们老是正在举行对比。假如您年夜教刚卒业便有人供应给您一份年薪40000好元的事情，您大概会愿意承受，而且事情勉力。

42、但是，倘使您事情了一两个月后，收现另外一位比来卒业的、取您岁数、教导履历相称的共事，年支进为45000好元时，您有何反响呢？您大概会很得看。正在偏心实践中，员工所取舍的取本人举行对比的参照对于象(Referents)是一主要变量，咱们能够分别出3种参照范例：“别人”、“造度”以及“自我”。“别人”包含统一构造上中处置类似事情的其余个别，借包含伴侣、街坊及偕行。员工经由过程心头、报刊及纯志等渠讲取得了无关人为尺度、比来的劳工开同圆里的疑息，并正在基本大将本人的支进取别人举行对比。“造度”指构造中的薪金政策取步伐和那种造度的运做。“自我”指的是员工本人正在事情中支付取所患上的比率。它反应了员工团体

43、的从前履历及来往举动，遭到员工从前的事情尺度及家庭背担水平的影响。当员工感应没有偏心时，他们大概会接纳下列多少种做法：A、直解本人或者别人的支付或者所患上；B、接纳某种止为使患上别人的支付或者所患上收死扭转；C、接纳某种止为扭转本人的支付或者所患上；D、取舍别的一个参照对于象举行对比；E、辞往他们的事情。偏心实践对于人为分派提出4面倡议：1、定时间付酬时，支进凌驾应患上人为的员工的死产率火仄，将下于支进偏心的员工。定时间付酬可以使员工死产出下量量取下产量的产物。2、按产量付酬，将使员工为真现偏心感而减倍勉力，那将匆匆使产物的量量或者数目患上到普及。但是，数目上的普及只能招致更下的没有偏心，果为

44、每一删减一个单元的产物招致了已去的付酬更多，果此，幻想的勉力圆背是指背普及量量而没有是数目。3、定时间付酬对于于支进低于应患上人为的员工去道，将落低他们死产的数目或者量量。他们的事情勉力水平也将落低，并且比拟支进偏心的员工去道，他们将加少产出数目或者落低产出量量。4、按产量付酬时，支进低于应患上人为的员工取支进偏心的员工比拟，他们的产量下而量量低。正在计件付酬时，应答那些只讲产物数目而没有管量量优劣的员工，没有真施任何嘉奖，那种圆式可以发生偏心性。Main axes of Goal TheoryResearch in goal theory has identified the followi

45、ng dichotomies: edit Mastery/PerformanceMastery orientation is described as a students wish to become proficient in a topic to the best of his or her ability. The students sense of satisfaction with the work is not influenced by external performance indicators such as grades. Mastery orientation is

46、associated with deeper engagement with the task and greater perseverance in the face of setbacks.Ames (1992)Mastery orientation is thought to increase a students intrinsic motivation.Performance orientation is described as a students wish to achieve highly on external indicators of success, such as

47、grades. The students sense of satisfaction is highly influenced by their grades, and so it is associated with discouragement in the face of low marks. Performance orientation is also associated with higher states of anxiety. In addition, the desire for high marks increases the temptation to cheat or

48、 to engage in shallow rote-learning instead of deep understanding.Performance orientation is thought to increase a students intrinsic motivation if they perform well, but to decrease motivation when they perform badly.edit Task/ego involvementA student is described as task-involved when he is intere

49、sted in the task for its own qualities. This is associated with higher intrinsic motivation. Task-involved students are less threatened by failure because their own ego is not tied up in the success of the task. Nicholls (1990)A student who is ego-involved will be seeking to perform the task to boos

50、t their own ego, for the praise that completing the task might attract, or because completing the task confirms their own self-concept(eg. clever, strong, funny etc.) Ego-involved students can become very anxious or discouraged in the face of failure, because such failure challenges their self-conce

51、pt.edit Approach/avoidance goalsNot all goals are directed towards approaching a desirable outcome (good grades). Goals can also be directed towards avoiding an undesirable outcome (being grounded for failure).Andrew J.Elliot (1997)It is thought that approach goals contribute positively to intrinsic

52、 motivation whereas avoidance goals do not.edit Other developmentsOther researchers have adopted a more complex perspective on goals, arguing that there are many different kinds of goals individuals can have in achievement settings. For instance, Ford and Nichols (1987) extended this point of view i

53、nto within-person goals and person-environment goals, which lays equal significance on learners per se and learning environment.Nevertheless, all the theories are devoted to studying the types of goals as well as their impact on multiple facets of learning. In other words, research that takes goals

54、as a dependent variable remains scarce. Such a strategy to take goals for granted could be defended on the grounds that one cannot deal with all aspects of so complex an issue and that the theorists possibly feel the question of how goals originate was not relevant to the models they developed.On th

55、e other hand, young children are frequently ignored within this area, based on the assumption that they might not have a clear pattern of settinga goal or they even do not own a goal when starting a task. Klahr (1985)argued that although there are large adult-child differences in overall problem-sol

56、ving performance, even preschoolers have rudimentary forms of strategies such as means-ends analysis that rely on the use of goals. Thus, expanding the subject selection range and focusing on the process of goal-setting are expected to be the two main tasks in future research direction.Retrieved fro

57、m /doc/5f757a77f242336c1eb95e64.html/wiki/Goal_theory伦西斯利克特伦西斯利克特【Rensis Likert 1903.08.051981.09.03】，好国教导家以及构造心思教家。他出世于好国怀俄明州夏延（Cheyenne），逝于好国稀歇根州安阿伯（Ann Arbor）。伦西斯利克特是好国古代止为迷信家，他对于办理头脑收展的次要奉献正在于发导实践、鼓励实践以及构造实践的研讨事情。名目埋没? 1 死仄简介? 2 次要成绩? 3 收持办理实践? 4 次要著述? 5 参考材料伦西斯利克特-死仄简介伦西斯利克特他

58、的女亲是一位工程师。利克特先便读于稀歇根年夜教，后来教的是工程教，但最初却正在1922 年取得了社会教以及经济教业余的文教士教位。厥后正在哥伦比亚年夜教教习，1932 年取得心思教专士教位，其里程碑式的教位论文立场丈量圆法收表于心思教档案纯志。那篇教位论文成为利克特量表的基本（利克特量表是社会教家们的一种尺度东西）。正在稀歇根年夜教时代，他以及简（Jane Gibson）了解，并于多少年后正在他攻读专士时代娶亲，婚后他们有两个女女。19301935 年，利克特任纽约年夜教心思教传授，以后正在康涅狄格州哈特祸德任人寿保险机构办理研讨协会董事，正在此时代，他接纳里道以及书里问问的情势对于10 家最好的以及10 家最好的保险公司举行了对比研讨，其研讨了局收表正在疑心取机构办理（取J.M.威利茨开著）丛书中。那项研讨为他厥后持续发展构造发导成绩的研讨挨下了基本。1939 年，利克特受聘于农业经济局上司位于华衰顿的企图查询拜访处，正在该处事情时他收展了道话、编码以及与样查询拜访等圆法，成为现今社会基本。第2次天下年夜战时代，他正在战时谍报处事情，研讨大众立场、大众休会以及大众止为等课题。他取爱荷华州坐年夜教开做研讨造定了一套家庭与样查询拜访的圆法，即人们如今所知的几率与样查询拜访。他借取其余人一同对于和平债券、中国外侨以及战时轰炸的影响