chapter 7 changes in word meaning

1、 Extension of Meaning Narrowing of Meaning Elevation of Meaning Degradation of Meaning Extension of Meaning 词义的扩大词义的扩大 Generalization of Meaning It is a process by which a word which originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized or has extended to cover a broader and often less def

2、inite concept. 一个原本具有特殊意义的单词的词义被延伸，范 围扩大，从而指代一种普遍意义语义变化过程。 如英语中的mouse( 老鼠鼠标) ，hot potato( 热 土豆烫手山芋或难以处理、棘手的问题) ? Manuscript (original) Handwriting( writing by hand only) (手手 稿稿) (present) Any authors writing whether written by hand or typed with a type-writer or a word- processor (原稿) Salary (origin

3、al) a sum of money given to Roman soldiers to enable them to buy salt (政府按时发 给古罗马军人一些买盐的钱) (present) fixed payment made by employer at regular intervals to employees (薪水) The changes in meaning are gradual, and words are not changed in a day. Lady (the hostess - noblewoman - well- cultivated woman -

4、 woman) an old lady or elderly lady a sales lady a cleaning lady ladys room a lady novelist lady guests Both extension and restriction of meaning are focusing on the changes in conceptual meaning. Next we will talk about the changes in associative meaning. It is a process by which a word of wide mea

5、ning acquires a narrow or specialized sense. In other words, a word which used to have a more general sense becomes restricted in its application and conveys a special concept in present-day English. 把词义范围较广的词缩小，表示特指，即过去具 有普遍意义的词变化后，现在仅仅表达特殊意义。 When a common word is turned into a proper noun, the me

6、aning is narrowed accordingly. “the City” means “the business center of London” “the Prophet” stands for “Mohammed” For economy, some phrases are shortened and only one element of the original, usually an adjective, is left to retain the meaning of the whole. Such adjectives have thus taken on speci

7、alized meanings. a general = a general officer an editorial = an editorial article 3.Some material nouns are used to refer to objects made of them and thus have a more specific sense. silver silver dollar glass a cup-like container or a mirror iron device for smoothing clothes Elevation of Meaning 词

8、义的升华词义的升华 It is the process by which words rise from humble beginnings to positions of importance. Some words early in their history signify something quite low or humble, but change as time goes by to designate something agreeable or pleasant. 词义的升华指词由贬义或中性转变为褒义。即， 有些词在历史上表示“卑微、下贱”之义，随着时 间的推移转为“惬意的

9、，愉快的”。 nice ignorant - foolish - delightful, pleasant marshal a keeper of horses - a high ranking army officer constable a keeper of horses - a policeman terrific( 可怕的，恐怖的极好的、极大的) ， executive( 执行者行政官员，高级首脑，决 策人，董事会) 。 It is a process whereby words of good origin or affective neutrality fall into ill

10、 reputation or come to be used in a derogatory sense. 这是一个词由原先表示中性意义或褒义转为表示贬义的过 程。 silly blessed and happy- innocent-simple or simple-minded -foolish sad full, satisfied, contented - calm - serious - -sorrowful Definition Some words which were used to designate one thing but later changed to mean so

11、mething else have experienced the process of semantic transfer, known as transference or transfer of meaning. 有些词原指称某些事物，后来发生变化，转为指称另外 的事物，就是词义的转移。 Types of transference Associated Transfer 联想转移 Transfer Between Abstract and Concrete Meanings 抽 象含义与具体意义间的转移 Transfer Between Subjective and Objective

12、Meanings 主观意义和客观意义间的转移 Synesthesia 通感 Associated Transfer 联想转移 This is what is commonly known as figurative extension of meaning. e.g. The lip of a wound 伤口的边缘 The tongues of fire The foot of a mountain Transfer between Abstract and Concrete Meanings 抽象含义与具体意义间的转移 Abstract to concrete meaning Room f

13、ormerly meant “space” as in “There is no room in the car”. Now it has developed a concrete meaning as in “This flat has three rooms”. More example: aftermath, Concrete to abstract meaning Grasp (original)A firm hold with the hands and arms (present)The power or ability to understand Transfer Between

14、 Subjective and Objective Meanings 主观意义和客观意义间的转移 Some words were formerly used subjectively but later shifted to an objective use, and the subjective meaning was totally lost. Synesthesia 通感通感 This kind of transfer takes place between words of sensation. That is, words usually associated with one se

15、nse are used to describe another sense. 通感修辞格又叫“移觉”，就是在描述客观事物时，用形象 的语言使感觉转移，将人的听觉、视觉、嗅觉、味觉、触 觉等不同感觉互相沟通、交错，彼此挪移转换，将本来表 示甲感觉的词语移用来表示乙感觉，使意象更为活泼、新 奇的一种修辞格。E.g Clear-sounding (from sight to hearing) Warm colors (from touch to sight) Sweet voice/music (from taste to hearing) Euphemism 委婉语 When people us

16、e euphemisms there is a semantic change involved as the expressions used often have little to do with the referents. Restroom, bathroom, lounge, John, convenience, comforts room and powder room are all euphemistic terms for “toilet” which itself is a euphemistic term. Euphemistic terms are found use

17、d in every aspect of society. Strengthening of meaning Weakening of meaning 7.2 Mechanism of Change associative field (1) a wsimilarity between assciated sign- shapes (2) a similarity between the sign-contents or concepts (3) a contact between associated sign- shapes (4) a contact between the sign-c

18、ontents, or concepts, usually because of a continuity of referents. 7.3 Causes of Change变化的原因变化的原因 n Extra-linguistic factors 非语言非语言因素因素 Historical cause Social cause Psychological cause n Linguistic factors 语言语言因素因素 Historical Reason A word is retained for a name though the meaning has changed beca

19、use the referent has changed. (e.g. pen, car, pencil ) Increased scientific knowledge and discovery is also an important factor that underlies the change of word meaning. (e.g. atom) Class reason Change in word meaning resulting from a constant verbal traffic between common words and various technic

20、al words is referred to as social cause of semantic chang (Ullman 1977: 199-200). Language records the speech and attitude of different social classes, so different social varieties of language have come into being. The attitude of classes have made inroads into lexical meaning, particularly in the

21、case of elevation and degradation. Quite a number of words that denote different sorts of working people or their occupations have deteriorated and now have taken on a pejorative sense. E.g. Churl, hussy, wench, villain which were originally neutral in colour have been down- graded as “ill-manned or bad people”. Psychological Reason The associated transfer of meaning and euphemistic use of wor