语言学概论期末复习男神版

1、语言学概论Chapter 1Invitations to Linguistics1. What is language?Senses of language in Websters New World Dictionary （ourbook, p、 2） “Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication（Wardaugh）2. Design features of language语言设计特征1、 arbitrariness （ 任意性 ） 2 、duality （ 双重性 ）3、 Cre

2、ativity （ 创造性 ） or productivity 4 、 displacement （ 移位 性）5、 interchangeability （ 互换性） 6 、 specialization （ 专业化）7、 cultural transmission （文化传承）3. Functions of Language （语言功能 ）Jakobsons view: 1 、Emotive（ 情感功能 ）2 、Referential （指代功能）3、Poetic（诗学功能）4、Phatic （寒暄功能）5、Metalingual（元语 言）6、Conative（意动功能）Halliday

3、 s view: 1 、ideational function （ 概念功能）2、Interpersonal function （人际功能）3、Textual function （语篇功能）Functions on the book: 1 、 informative（ 告知性得 ） 2 、Interpersonal Function（ 人际功能 ） 3 、Performative（ 行事功能 ） 4 、Emotive Function6、5、Phatic Communion （寒暄功能） Recreational Function（ 娱乐功能 ） 7 、 Matalingual Functio

4、n（ 元语言功能 ）4 What Is Linguistics? Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language 、? 1） Exhaustiveness （穷尽性） 2） Consistency （贯通性）3） Economy （经济性） 4） Objectivity （客观性）5、 Competence vs 、 performance 言语能力 vs 、 言语行为?Noam Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax、?Competenc

5、e refers to a language userundserlyingknowledge about the system of rules 、?Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations 、Chapter 2Speech sounds1. Consonants and vowelsDistinction between consonants and vowels:最小对立体）the obstruction（阻塞） of airstream2. Minimal pairs and mini

6、mal sets When two words are identical in every way except for a contrast in one sound segment occurring in the same position in the string, the two words are called a minimal pair 最小对立体、E、 g: pit and bit junk and chunkban and bin bet and bat A minimal p air should follow three con diti ons: 1) they

7、are differe nt in meaning; 2) they differ on ly in one sound segme nt; 3) the differe nt sounds occur in the same position in the strings 、Cha pter 3From morp heme to p hrase1. Root & affixRoot 词根:1、a morpheme which is the basic part of aword、(Occur on its own、may be joined to other roots、or take af

8、fixes (maniy, coldness) or combi ning forms (biochemistry)2 It is that p art of the word left whe n all the affixes are removed 、3. All words contain a root morphemeAffix 词缀:1、 a letter or sound, or group of letters orsoun ds(=a morp heme), which is added to a word, and which cha nges the meaning or

9、 function of the word 、( Prefix 前缀,Suffix 后 缀，infix 中缀：feet, geese)2 、 inflectional affix 曲折词缀 and derivationalaffix派生词缀Chap ter 5Meaning1. The Referential Theory(所指理论) The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential the

10、ory Refere nee 所扌旨 refers to the relati on shi p between a word and the object it denotes in the physical world, i 、e、 denotation 外延 in philosophy 、 Is a very popu lar theory (sema ntic tria ngle by Ogden and Richards in Meaning of Meaning ) Problems with this theory : Not every word has a reference

11、 所旨、2. Sense relations 意义关系Sense may be defined as the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generally between one linguistic unit and another 、*distinctions between sense and referenceThe distinction between sense and reference is comparable to that between connotation and denota

12、tion in philosophy The former refers to the abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to the concrete entities having these properties 、 Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference 、 Reference in its wider sense would be the relationship between a word or phrase and an

13、 entity in the external world 、 So sense is intra-linguistic and reference is extra- linguistic3. 3 kinds of sense relations:Synonymy （ 同义关系）、 （ absolute 相对同义词、 Stylistic 情感同义词、? Semantic relation of sameness or similarity in meaning of two or more linguistic expressions synonyms 绝对同义词、 relative syn

14、onyms synonyms 文体同义词、 Emotive synonyms Collocational synonyms ： 搭配同义词 )Antonymy （反义关系）Relation of semantic opposition 、three main sub-types ：1) Gradable antonymy (等级反义关系)：hotcoldThey are gradable; the denial of one is not necessarily the assertion of the other 、 There is an intermediate ground betwe

15、en the two warmcool tallshort bigsmall )2 Complementary antonymy (互补反义关系)The members of a pair in this type are complementary to each other 、 There is no intermediate ground between the two 、 ( alivedead oddeven singlemarried malefemale passfail hitmiss )3 Converse antonymy （相反反义关系）The members of a

16、pair in this type show the reversal of a relationship between two entitiesThey are also known as relational opposites 、 There are always two entities involved 、 Onepresupposes the other 、 (buysell givereceive husbandwife teacherstudent abovebelow beforeafter )Hyponymy （上下义关系）? A relationship between

17、 two words, in which the meaning of one of the words includes the meaning of the other word 、?Sometimes a superordinate may be a superordinate to itself 、red? A superordinate may be missing sometimes green yellow )?Hyponyms may also be missing 、( uncle rice )4 、 Componential analysis( 成分分析 )Componen

18、tial analysis: (in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning which analyses a word into a set of meaning components or semantic features 、Usually, componential analysis is applied to a group of related words which may differ from one another only by one or two components 、Semantic features 语义特征

19、 or semantic components are the basic unit of meaning in a word 、 The meanings of words may be described as a combination of semantic features 、5 、 An integrated theory整体理论）The idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usual

20、ly known as the principle of compositionality( 复合性原则)ra dictionarya sema ntic theory y投射规则J a set of projection rulesThe dictio nary pro vides the grammatical classificatio n and sema ntic in formati on of words 、The pr ojecti on rules are respon sible for comb ining the meanings of words together 、

21、（P、107）Cha pter 6Language and cognition1、What is cognitionTwo defi niti ons about cog niti on: In psychology it refers to the mental processes of an in dividual with p articular relati on to the view that argues that the mind has in ter nal states （beliefs, desires, and intentions） and can be unders

22、tood in terms of in formati on p rocess ing 、 Mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as aware ness, p erce pti on, reas oning, and judgement、（心理语言学）2. What is psycholinguisticsDefinition : is the study of psychological aspects of Ianguages;it usually studies the psychological s

23、tates and mental activity associated with the use of Ianguage、6 subjects of research with in p sycholi nguistics:Acquisition（语言习得）Comprehension（ 语言理解） Language and thought3. W hat is Cognitive Linguistics?Definition: is a newly established approach to the study of language 、Chapter 7Language, cultur

24、e and Society1. Language and Culture What is culture :Culture, in a broad sense, means the total way of life of a people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language that characterizes the life of the human community 、In a narrow sense , culture may ref

25、er to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs, which can be mostly found in folk culture, enterprise culture or food culture etc 、 The relationship between language and cultureA language not only expresses facts, ideas, or events which represent similar world knowledge by its people, but also

26、 reflects the people atstitudes, beliefs, world outlooks etc 、 In a word, language expresses cultural reality 、2. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis （萨丕尔 -沃尔夫假设 ）Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people s perception and the way they categorize experiences 、 This interdependence of language and thoug

27、ht is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 、This hypothesis primarily suggests that our language will mould our view of the world、Thus, two versions, strong version and have been developed 、But few people would tend to accept the original for this theory 、 weak versionthe strongversion: the language

28、patterns determine people thisnking and behavior 、the weak version: the former influences the latter3. Language and society Definition of sociolinguistics( 社会语言学 ):Sociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language an

29、d the social structures in which the users of language live 、 The relatedness between language and society1) While language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships 、differently 、 The kind of language chooses to use is in part determi

30、ned background 、2) Users of the same language in a sense all speak each of them by his socialespecially the3) To some extent, language, structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society4) Judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic variet

31、ies are social rather than linguistic4 、 Halliday s register theory:Definition of register （语域） : The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register 、Field of discourse （语场） refers to what is going on: to the area of operation of the language 、Tenor of disco

32、urse （语旨） refers “ to whom the speakerJ_戈，is communicating ”Mode of discourse （语式） mainly refers to the means of communication 、Chapter 8Language in use1. What is Pragmaticsthe study of language in use 、2. Speech act theoryOxford philosopher John: How to Do Things with Words1）The first major theory

33、in the study of language in use, which originated with the Langshaw Austin2）Speech act: in communication 、 two kinds of meaning:an utterance（ 表达 ） as a functional unit In speech act theory, utterances havea. propositional meaning 命 题 意 义 （also known as locutionary meaning 发话意义 ）b. illocutionary mean

34、ing 行事意义 （also known as illocutionary force 行事语力 ）、A speech act is a sentence or utterance which has bothpropositional meaning and illocutionary force 、3） 2 types of sentences:Performatives （施为句；行事话语） : an utterancewhich performs an actConstative （表述句 ；述事话语） which asserts something either true or fa

35、lse 、: an utterance that is*It has even been suggested that there is difference between constative and performatives 、no real implicitAll sentences can be used todothings 、3、 A theory of the illocutionary act（行事行为理论 ）? Three different types of act involved in or caused the utterance of a sentence:by

36、? Locutionary act （ 发 话 行 为 ） is the sayingofsomething which is meaningful and can be understood? Illocutionary act （行事行为） is using a sentence toperform a function ，related to the speaker s、intention? Perlocutionary act （ 取 效 行 为 ） is the result or effects that are produced by means of saying someth

37、ing 、4 、 Categories of speech acts by Searle1、Representative （ 阐 述 类 ） :stating or describing, saying what the（e、g、 I swear ）speaker believes to be true2 、 Directives （指令类）something 、（e 、g、: trying to get the hearer to do Your money or your life 、 ）3、 Commissives （承诺类）himself to some future:committi

38、ng the speakercourse of acti on 、（e、g、 I promise、）Expressive （表 情类）attitude towards an existi ng state（e:expressing feelings or、g、 Thank you ）Declarations （宣告类）：bring about immediatechanges by saying something、（e、g、 you are fired、）5、The theory of conversational implicature论会话含义理The second use prop o

39、sed Conversation、major theory in the study of Ian guage in by Herbert Paul Grice :Logic and1）Defi nitio n:Conversational implicature meaning, which is deduced of the conventional meaning of words together with the con text, un der guida nee of the CP and its maximsis a type of on the basisthe2）Chara

40、ctenstics of imp licature:Calculability （可计算性）can cellability/ defeasibility （可删除性 / 可取消性）Non-detachability （非可分离性） Non-conven ti on ality（非规约性）co-theprin ci pie合作原则：Thesp eakersin using1、 The cooperativeop erati onbetwee nconversationalmaxims is called the cooperativeprincip le、2、 Conversationalmax

41、im 对话准则 : an unwrittenrule about conversation which people know and which influences the form of conversational exchanges? Grice introduced 4 categories of maximsa 、 the maxim of Quantity Qualityb、the maxim ofc 、 the maxim of Relation Manne rd、the maxim of6 、Post-Gricean developments1) Relevance the

42、ory 关联理论Definition : Every act of ostensive communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance 、(每一个明示交际行为都传递一种假设：该 行为本身具备最适宜关联)communication2) the Q- and R-principleThese two principle was proposed byLaurence Horn The Q-principle is intended to invoke the first maxim ofGrice Qsuantity, and t

43、he R-principle the Relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricean maxims 、 Horn reduces all the Gricean maxims to two principles: the Q- and R-principleA、 The Q-principle (hearer- based):Make your contribution sufficientSay as much as you canB、 The R-principle (speaker-ba

44、sed):Make your contribution necessarySay no more than you mustIn other words , the Q-principle is concerned with thecontent 、 The R- principle, on the other hand, isconcerned with the formChapter 11Linguistic and Foreign Language Teaching1. Definition:SLA: Second language acquisition 二语习得CPH :Critic

45、al Period Hypothesis 关键期假设UG： Universal Grammar 普遍语法LAD：Language Acquisition Device 语言习得基质IL ：Interlanguage 中介语CA： Contrastive Analysis 对比分析EA: Error Analysis 错误分析2 Universal Grammar普遍语法Universal grammar holds that there are certain basic structural rules that govern language that all humans know without having to learn them 、3 、 Input and language learningLanguage Acquisition Device 语言习得基质Krashen s Input Hypothesis1) Ther