质量控制和安全施工外文翻译

1、卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象质量控制和安全施工1在施工中存在的质量和安全问题质量控制和安全问题对项目经理来说变得越来越重要。 施工过程中的设备缺陷或 故障可能会导致非常大的成本。即使有轻微缺陷，也可能需要重新建设使设施运营受 损。导致成本的增加和延误结果。在最坏的情况下，故障可能导致人身伤害甚至死亡。 在施工过程中的事故可能导致人身伤害和巨大的花费。保险，检验和监管的间接成本迅速增加，会导致直接成本的增加。好的项目经理应尽量确保在第一时间完成任务， 并且在工程中没有重大事故发生。随着成本的控制，关于已完成设施的质量的最重要的决策是在设计和规划阶段， 而不是在施工阶段。正是在该组件的配置，材料规格和功

2、能性能这些初步阶段而决定 的。施工过程中的质量控制主要是确保其是否符合原先的设计和规划决策。虽然符合现有的设计决策是质量控制的首要重点，但也有例外的情况。第一，不可预见的情况下，错误的设计决策或希望通过在设备功能的所有者权益变动，可能在施工过程中要求对设计决策进行重新评估。 虽然这些变化可能是出于关心质量， 但他 们意味着随之而来的所有目标和限制因素都要进行重新设计。至于第二种情况，一些明智且适当的设计决策就是取决于施工过程本身，例如，一些隧道要求在不同的位置作出一定数量支护的方法，就是根据土壤条件，观察在隧道里面的过程而做出的决策。 由于这样的决定是基于有关工地的实际情况， 因此该设施的设计

3、可能会更符合成本效 益的结果。任何特殊的情况下，重新设计的施工过程中都需要考虑各种因素。在施工过程中以讲究一致性作为质量的衡量标准， 质量要求的设计和合同文件中 的说明将变得极为重要。质量要求应该是明确的、可验证的，能使项目中的各方都能 够理解的一致性要求。本章的大部分讨论均涉及到发展和建设的不同质量要求，以及确保符合性的相关问题。建设项目中的安全性也在很大程度上影响到规划设计过程中的决策。 一些设计或 施工计划本身就是又危险又很难实现的， 而其他类似的计划，则可以大大降低事故发 生的可能性。例如，从施工区域内修复巷道使得交通分道行驶可以大大降低意外碰撞共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象的

4、可能性。除了这些设计决策，在施工过程中安全在很大程度上取决于教育，提高警 惕，合作。工人应对可能发生意外保持时刻警惕，避免不必要的风险。2组织的质量和安全在施工过程中，各种不同的组织均可对质量和安全进行控制。 一个常见的模式是 由一个组负责质量保证而另一个组则主要负责集团内的安全组织。在大型的组织中， 各部门致力于确保质量和安全， 可能会指定专人来承担这些具体项目的责任。 对于较 小的项目，项目经理或助理可能会承担相应责任。在任一情况下，确保安全和质量建 设是项目经理在除人事、成本、时间和其他管理问题以外必须重点关注并全面负责的。检查人员和质量保证人员将代表各种不同的组织共同参与一个项目。跟项

5、目直接相关的各方都可能有自己的质量和安全检查，包括业主，工程师/设计师，和各种构造公司。这些检查员可以从专业的质量保证机构组织选择担任。除了现场检查，材料 样品通常会由专门的实验室测试，以确保其权威性。为了保证符合监管要求，相关部 门也将参与其中。常见的例子是当地政府建设部门的督察，环境机构，和职业健康与 安全机构。美国职业安全与健康管理局（OSHA与获批准的国家检验机构合作，定期对工作 场所进行实地考察。OSHA勺检查人员必须依法对所有违背标准的行为进行采证。以保障安全标准规定的各种机械措施和程序；例如，梯子的安全有超过140个法规。在极 端不符合标准上面法规的情况下，安全检查员可以停止在一

6、个项目的工作。然而，只 有一小部分的建筑工地是由 OSH/督察巡视的，大多数施工现场的事故并非由违反现 有标准造成的。因此，安全问题在很大程度上应由现场管理人员而非公共督察负责。而施工过程中的众多参与者都需要检查人员的服务，也不能过于强调检查人员只检查质量控制的过程。好的质量控制应该是一个项目团队所有成员的首要目标。管理者应承担维护和提高质量控制的责任。员工参与质量控制包括引入了新的思路都应该 被奖励。最重要的是，质量改进可以作为提高生产率的催化剂。良好的质量控制可以 通过提出新的工作方法，避免返工，并避免长期的问题，达到自给自足。业主应促进 良好的质量控制，并寻求能保持这样的水准的承包商。除

7、了参与质量控制的各种组织机构，质量控制问题在几乎所有的建筑活动功能区 共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象均出现过。例如，确保准确和有用的信息是保持质量性能的重要组成部分。质量控制共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象的其他方面包括文件控制（包括在施工过程中的变更），采购，现场检查和测试，以 及设施的竣工验收。3工作和材料规范工作质量的规格是设备设计的一个重要特性。 要求的质量和部件的规格代表了必 要的文件来描述一个设备的一部分。 通常情况下，这个文件包含了施工期间使用的设 备设计文件和公认的规范的任何特殊规定，作为参考。工作质量一般规格在许多领域都是在如美国材料与试验协会（ ASTM，美国

8、国家 标准协会（ANSI），或施工规范协会（CSI）等组织的刊物上发表。不同规格的形式 为特定类型的建设活动，如由美国焊接协会颁发的焊接标准，或特定设施的类型，如 由美国协会的国家公路和运输官员颁发的公路桥梁的标准规范。这些一般规格必须进行修改，以反映当地的条件，政策，提供的材料，地方性法规及其他特殊情况。施工规范通常由一系列的具体操作指令或禁令组成。例如，下面的文章说明了一个典型的对在这种情况下的挖掘结构的规范：符合标高和尺寸正负0.10英尺的容差范围内的计划显示，从地基和基础延伸足 够的距离，允许放置及拆除混凝土模板，安装服务，其他建筑，并进行检查。在挖掘 挖掘地基和基础时，当心别影响基坑

9、开挖。用手挖掘并最终分级来填置钢筋混凝土。 调整（挖掘的）最底层到需要的路线和坡度，留下坚实的基础去填充坚实（的混凝土）。这一组规范要求应用判断，是由于有些项目不能精确地指定。例如，开挖必须延 长“足够”的距离，以便进行检查和其他活动。显然，“足够”这个词，在这种情况 下，可能会受到不同的解释。相反，一个规范，公差内加或减十分之一英尺则是直接 测量。然而，由于网站的设施或特征的具体要求，可能会使得十分之一英尺的标准公差变得不合适。书写规范通常需要在假设有关各方在诸如“充足”与预指定所有操 作的努力和可能的解释不准确的话双方的部分合理的行为之间的权衡。近年来，性能规格已经被开发运用于许多施工作业

10、。这些规范是指所要求的性能 的成品设施或质量，而不是指定所需的施工过程中的规范。 而如何从其中获得此性能 的具体方法则是留给建筑承包商的。例如，传统规格为沥青路面中指定的沥青材料， 沥青组合物的摊铺温度，压实过程。相反，一个性能规格沥青所需的详细性能是关于 共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象路面的抗渗性及强度等。如何达到所期望的性能水平则要依靠铺路承包商。共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象质量控制（I）1全面的质量控制在施工质量控制一般包括投保符合材料和工艺上最低准则，以便根据设计，以确保设备的性能。这些最低标准都包含在上一节中描述的规范。对于符合保险的目的， 随机抽样和统计方法通常用

11、于为基础，接受或拒绝工作完成，材料批次。一批拒绝是 基于不符合或违反有关设计规范。这种质量控制的实践过程在下面的章节中描述。在这些传统的质量控制方法的一个隐含的假设是可以接受的质量水平，这是不良品的允许分数的概念。由一个组织进行供应商或工作组获得的材料进行检查，如果估计有缺陷，但是所占百分比是在可接受的质量水平， 让供应商和工作组来判断判断是 否通过验收。如果是材料或货物的问题则是在产品交付后校正。与此相反，质量控制这种传统的方法是全面质量管理的目标。在这个系统中，施 工过程中的任何地方都不允许有次品。 而完美的目标却是永远无法达到的， 它提供了 一个目标，让组织永远不会满足于它的质量控制程序

12、， 使得缺陷在年复一年的大量减 少。这个概念和质量控制的方法最初是开发制造在日本和欧洲的公司，但已蔓延到许多建筑公司。最有名的质量改进的正式认证是国际标准化组织ISO 9000标准。ISO9000强调良好的文档，质量目标和一系列的周期规划，实施和审查。全面质量管理是一个对质量的承诺，表现在组织的各个部分，通常涉及许多元素。 设计审查是确保安全和有效的施工程序的一个主要元素。其他因素包括大量的人员培训，转移检测产品缺陷的质量控制员的责任，并不断维护设备。在质量圈中的工人小 组定期开会，提出质量改进的建议，但工人参与改进质量控制往往是形式化的。材料 供应商也需要确保交付货物的零缺陷。首先，从供应商

13、的所有材料进行检查，有缺陷 的商品被分批次退回。能证明自己信誉优良的供应商，贝冋以在之后完成检查。质量控制的传统微观经济学的观点是有缺陷的项目的“最优”的比例。努力实现 比这更大的最佳的质量会大幅增加检验成本，降低员工的工作效率。然而，许多公司 都发现，致力于全面质量控制可以产生可观的经济效益， 这是一个曾经一直不受重视 的传统方法。全面质量控制使得返工，废钢和保证与库存相关费用均减少，并且改善 工作人员的积极性和工作决心。 客户往往喜欢更高质量的作品，并会为其高质量支付 高价。其结果是，完善的质量控制成为了一个竞争优势。共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象当然，全面的质量控制是很难应用的，

14、尤其是在建设中。各设施的独特性，劳动 力的变化性，众多分包商，教育和程序进行必要的成本投资，使项目全面质量控制的 实施难度大。然而，一个组织虽不能保证达到完美的目标但却一直致力于提高质量， 那么它可以是一个真正为大家造福的组织。共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象附外文原文：Quality Con trol and Safety duri ng Con structi on1 Quality and Safety Concerns in Con structio nQuality control and safety represent increasinglyimportant conce

15、rns forproject man agers. Defects or failures in con structed facilities can result in very large costs. Eve n with mi nor defects , re-c on structio n may be required and facility operatio ns impaired. In creased costs and delays are the result. In the worst case, failures may cause pers onal in ju

16、ries or fatalities.Accide nts duri ng the con struct ion process can similarly result in pers onal injuries and large costs. In direct costs of in sura nee, in specti on and regulati on are in creas ing rapidly due to these in creased direct costs. Good project man agers try to en sure that the job

17、is done right the first time and that no major accide nts occur on the project.As with cost control,the most important decisions regarding the qualityof a completed facilityare madeduring the design and planning stages ratherthan during construction. It is during these preliminary stages that compon

18、ent con figurati ons, material specificati ons and functional performa nee are decided. Quality con trol duri ng con structi on con sists largely of in suri ng con forma nee to these origi nal desig ns and pla nning decisi ons.While con forma nee to existi ng desig n decisi ons is the primary focus

19、ofquality con trol, there are excepti ons to this rule. First, un foresee ncircumsta nces, in correct desig n decisi ons or cha nges desired by an owner inthe facility function may require re-evaluation of design decisions duringthe course of con struct ion.While these cha nges maybe motivated by th

20、e concernfor quality, they represe nt occasi ons for re-desig n with all the atte ndant objectives and con stra in ts.As a sec ond case, somedesig ns rely upon in formedand appropriate decision making during the construction process itself. For共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象example, some tunn eli ng methods mak

21、e decisi ons about the amount of shori ng required at differe nt locati ons based upon observati on of soil con diti ons duri ng the tunn eli ng process. Since such decisi ons are based on better informationconcerning actual site conditions,the facility design maybe morecost effective as a result. A

22、ny special case of re-design during construction requires the various con siderati ons.With the atte nti on to con forma nee as the measure of quality duri ng theconstruction process, the specificationof quality requirements in the designand con tract docume ntati on becomesextremely importa nt. Qua

23、lity requireme nts should be clear and verifiable, so that all parties in the project can un dersta nd the requireme nts for con forma nee. Much of the discussi on in this chapter relates to the development and the implicationsof differentqualityrequireme nts for con struct ionas well as the issues

24、associated with in suri ngcon forma nee.Safety duri ng the con struct ion project is also in flue need in large partby decisi ons made duri ng the pla nning and desig n process. Some desig ns or con structi on pla ns are in here ntly difficult and dan gerous to impleme nt, whereas other, comparable

25、pla ns may con siderably reduce the possibility of accide nts. For example, clear separatio n of traffic from con structi on zones during roadway rehabilitation can greatly reduce the possibility of accidentalcollisi ons. Bey ond these desig n decisi ons, safety largely depe nds upon education, vigi

26、lanee and cooperation during the constructionprocess. Workersshould be constantly alert to the possibilities of accidents and avoid taken unn ecessary risks.2 Orga nizi ng for Quality and SafetyA variety of differentorganizationsare possible for quality and safetyeon trol duri ng eon struct ion. One

27、 com mon model is to have a group resp on sible for quality assura nee and ano ther group primarily resp on sible for safety within an organization. In large organizations, department dedicated to共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象quality assuranee and to safety might assign specific individuals to assume resp on s

28、ibility for these functions on particular projects. For smaller projects, the project man ager or an assista nt might assume these and other responsibilities. In either case, insuring safe and quality construction is a concern of the projectmanager in overall charge of the project in additionto the

29、concerns of pers onn el, cost, time and other man ageme nt issues.Inspectors and qualityassuranee personnel will be invoIved in a projectto represent a variety of differentorganizations.Each of the parties directlyconcerned with the project may have their own quality and safety in spectors, includin

30、g the owner, the engineer/architect, and the various constructor firms. These in spectors may be con tractors from specialized quality assura nee organizations. In addition to on-site inspections,samples of materials willcom mon ly be tested by specialized laboratories to in sure complia nee.In spec

31、tors to in sure complia nee with regulatory requireme nts will also be invoIved. Commoexamples are inspectors for the local governments building department, for environmental agencies, and for occupational health and safety age ncies.The US Occupatio nal Safety and Health Admi nistratio n (OSHA) rou

32、t in ely eon duct site visits of work places in conj un eti on with approved state in spect ion age ncies. OSHA in spectors are required by law to issue citati ons for all sta ndard violati ons observed. Safety sta ndards prescribe a variety of mechanical safeguards and procedures; for example, ladd

33、er safety is covered by over 140 regulati ons. In cases of extreme non-complia nee with sta ndards, OSHA in spectors can stop work on a project. However, on ly a small fracti on of eon struct ion sites are visited by OSHA in spectors and most eon structi on site accidents are not caused by violation

34、s of existingstandards. As a result,safety is largely the responsibilityof the managers on site rather than thatof public in spectors.共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象While the multitude of participantsinvoIved in the constructionprocessrequire the services of inspectors, it cannot be emphasized too strongly that

35、 inspectors are only a formal check on quality control. Quality control should be a primary objective for all the membersof a project team. Managers should take resp on sibility for mai nta ining and improvi ng quality con trol. Employee participation in quality control should be sought and rewarded

36、, including the introduction of newideas. Most important of all, quality improvement can serveas a catalyst for improved productivity. By suggesti ng new work methods, by avoiding rework, and by avoiding long term problems, good quality control can pay for itself. Owners should promote good quality

37、control and seek out con tractors who mai nta in such sta ndards.In addition to the various organizational bodies invoIved in quality control, issues of quality control arise in virtually all the functionalareasof con struct ion activities. For example, in suri ng accurate and useful information is

38、an important part of maintaining quality performanee. Other aspects of quality control include document control (includingchanges duringthe con struct ion process), procureme nt, field in specti on and testi ng, and final checkout of the facility.3 Work and Material Specificatio nsSpecificatio ns of

39、 work quality are an importa nt feature of facility desig ns. Specificati onsof required quality and comp onents represe nt part ofthe n ecessary docume ntati on to describe a facility. Typically, this documentation includes any special provisions of the facility designas wellas refere nces to gen e

40、rally accepted specificatio ns to be used duri ng con structi on.Gen eral specificati ons of work quality are available in nu merous fields and are issued in publications of organizations such as the American Society for Testi ng and Materials (ASTM), the America n Natio nal Sta ndards In stitute (A

41、NSI), or the Construction Specifications Institute (CSI).Distinet共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象specifications are formalized for particular types of constructionactivities,such as weld ing sta ndards issued by the America n Weld ing Society, or for particular facility types, such as the Sta ndard Specificati o

42、ns for Highway Bridges issued by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. These general specifications must be modified to reflect local conditions, policies, available materials, local regulations and other special circumsta nces.Constructionspecificationsnormally con

43、sist of a series of instructionsor prohibiti ons for specific operati ons. For example, the follow ing passage illustrates a typical specification, in this case for excavation for structures:Con form to elevati ons and dime nsions show n on pla n within a tolera nce ofplus or minus 0.10 foot, and ex

44、te nding a sufficie nt dista nce from footi ngs and foun dati ons to permit placi ng and removal of con crete formwork, in stallati on of services, other con structi on, and for in specti on. In excavati ng for foot ings and foun datio ns, take care not to disturb bottom of excavation. Excavate by h

45、and to final grade just before concrete reinforcement is placed. Trim bottoms to required lines and grades to leave solid base to receive con crete.This set of specificati ons requires judgme nt in applicati on since some items are not precisely specified. For example, excavatio n must exte nd a suf

46、ficie nt dista nce to permit in spect ion and other activities. Obviously, the term sufficient in this case maybe subject to varying interpretations. In con trast,a specificati onthat tolera nces are with in plus or minus a tenthof a foot is subject to direct measureme nt. However, specific requirem

47、e nts of the facility or characteristicsof the site may makethe standard toleranceof a tenth of a foot in appropriate.Writ ing specificati onstypically requiresa trade-offbetwee n assu ming reas on able behavior on the part of all the parties共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象concerned in in terpreti ng words such

48、as sufficie nt versus the effort and possible in accuracy in pre-specify ing all operati ons.In recent years, performanee specificationshave been developed for manycon structi on operati ons. Rather tha n specify ing the required con struct ion process, these specificati ons refer to the required pe

49、rforma nee or quality of the finished facility. The exact method by which this performance is obta ined is left to the con structi on con tractor. For example, traditi onal specificationsfor asphalt pavement specified the composition of the asphaltmaterial, the asphalt temperature duri ng pav ing, a

50、nd compact ing procedures.In contrast, a performance specificationfor asphalt would detail the desiredperforma nce of the paveme nt with respect to impermeability, stre ngth, etc.How the desired performance level was attained would be up to the paving con tractor. In somecases, the payme nt for asph

51、alt pav ing might in crease with better quality of asphalt bey ond some mi nimum level of performa nce.Quality Control ( I)1 Total Quality Co ntrolQuality con trol in con structi on typically invo Ives in suri ng complia nce with mi nimum sta ndards of material and workma nship in order to in sure t

52、he performance of the facility according to the design. These minimum standards are contained in the specificati ons described in the previous sect ion. For the purpose of in suri ng complia nce, ran dom samples and statistical methods are com monly used as the basis for accepti ng or reject ing wor

53、k completed and batches of materials. Rejecti on of a batch is based on non-con forma nce or violatio nof the releva nt desig n specificati ons.Procedures for this qualitycontrol practice are described in the following sections.An implicitassumption in these traditionalquality control practices isth

54、e notion of an acceptable quality level which is an allowable fraction of defective items. Materials obta ined from suppliers or work performed by an organizationis inspected and passed as acceptable if the estimated defective共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象percentage is within the acceptable quality level. Prob

55、lems with materialsor goods are corrected after delivery of the product.In contrast to this traditional approach of quality control is the goalof total quality control. In this system, no defective items are allowedany where in the con struct ion process. While the zero defects goal can n ever be pe

56、rma nen tly obta in ed, it provides a goal so that an orga ni zati on is n ever satisfied with its quality con trol program eve n if defects are reduced by substa ntial amounts year after year. This con cept and approach to quality con trol was first developed in manu facturi ng firms in Japa n and

57、Europe, but has since spread to many con struct ion compa ni es. The best known formal certification for quality improvement is the International Organization forStan dardizati ons ISO 9000 sta ndard. ISO 9000 emphasizes good docume ntati on, quality goals and a series of cycles of pla nnin g, imple

58、me ntati on and review.Total quality control is a commitment to quality expressed in all partsof an orga ni zati onan共享知识分享快乐卑微如蝼蚁、坚强似大象17 Civil Engineering Management川:Quality Control17.1.1 PassageQuality Con trol and Safety duri ng Con struct ion1 Quality and Safety Concerns in Con structi onQuali

59、ty con trol and safety represe nt in creas in gly importa nt concernsfor project man agers. Defects or failures in con structed facilities canresult in very large costs. Even with minor defects, re-construction maybe required and facility operati ons impaired. In creased costs and delays are the res

60、ult. In the worst case, failures may cause pers onal in juries or fatalities. Accide nts duri ng the con struct ion process can similarly result in pers onal in juries and large costs. In direct costs of in sura nee, in spect ion and regulati on are in creas ing rapidly due to these in creased direc